STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN FOR THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN 1995 - 2005 BY THE TASK FORCE FOR THE PROGRAMME
PREFACE
The Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin, conceived in Sofia in September 1991 and started in 1992, following agreement between its parties on a Work Plan and establishment of a Task Force (Annex II), provides for joint action over a period of three years to commence the task of improving environmental management in the basin. The drafting of a Strategic Action Plan for the Danube River Basin was one of the main tasks of the Environmental Programme.
As Chairman of the Task Force, on behalf of the European Commission, I welcome the Strategic Action Plan which is an essential early step towards addressing the Danube Basin's environmental problems in a comprehensive way.
The drafting of the Action Plan has been the task of a special group, mandated by the Task Force, comprising experts from Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania representing the Danubian countries; the European Commission; the United Nations Development Programme acting for the Global Environment Facility; the World Bank and the Danube Programme Coordination Unit. A special word of appreciation goes to the members of the drafting group for their essential work.
The Action Plan is based upon a number of reports available to the Programme from relevant studies undertaken in the Danube River basin as part of the process of preparing the Action Plan. National reviews of the environmental situation in the Danubian countries have also formed part of the basis for the Action Plan.
Wide consultations on the contents of the Action Plan took place in three stages and have served to safeguard full participation in the process of preparation. The Danube Programme Country Coordinators arranged open forum meetings at which there was broad participation of Government, district and local officials, and the public.
The Task Force approved the Strategic Action Plan at its meeting in Bled on 28 October, 1994. The Environment or Water Ministers of the Danubian Countries and the Member of the European Commission responsible for the Environment endorsed the Strategic Action Plan in the Ministerial Declaration of Bucharest, on 6 December, 1994.
It is my hope that this Strategic Action Plan will serve as an important tool for policy planners, decision- makers and other individuals concerned to improve the environmental situation in the Danube River Basin.
Tue ROHRSTED Chairman of the Task Force
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The development of the Strategic Action Plan has been a major task of the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin, which started in 1992. The Action Plan makes a significant contribution to the effort to improve environmental management in the Danube Basin. It supports and complements the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the Danube River Basin (DRPC) which was signed last June, and contributes to the implementation of the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe.
This document consists of two parts. Part I introduces the Plan (chapter 1); describes the goals, targets and actions to be undertaken (chapter 2); and discusses the problems related to financing implementation (chapter 3). Part II contains a description of the environment in the Danube River basin (chapter 4) and examines these problems and solutions in relation to the goals of the Action Plan (chapter 5). A glossary of terms used in the Action Plan is given in Annex I, a list of the members of the Task Force and Programme Coordination Unit in Annex II, a bibliography of documents produced under the Danube Programme in Annex III, and a brief description of the Accident Emergency Warning System in Annex IV.
Background
The Danube River is 2 857 km long; the basin covers 817 000 sq. km in 17 countries in the heart of central Europe. This includes many important natural areas, including the Danube delta - the second largest natural wetland area in Europe. The basin supports the supply of drinking water, agriculture, industry, fishing, tourism and recreation, power generation, navigation, and the end disposal of waste waters. These intensive agricultural, industrial and urban uses have created problems of water quality and quantity, and reduced biodiversity in the basin.
The most important problems (not in order of importance) affecting the health of the Danube River ecosystems and the water users in the basin are the high nutrients loads (nitrogen and phosphorus), changes in river flow patterns and sediment transport regimes, contamination with hazardous substances including oils, competition for available water, microbiological contamination, and contamination with oxygen depleting substances.
Wastes from cities and industries, chemical fertilisers, and manure from intensive and large-scale livestock operations are polluting the river system and the groundwater, raising nutrient levels and causing eutrophication. Other highly polluting activities include petrochemicals processing, iron and metal processing, timber, paper and pulp, and municipal solid waste disposal. Microbiological contamination is a problem throughout the river basin; it is generally caused by the discharge of urban waste and storm waters, as well as by livestock and agricultural run-off.
Inadequate waste treatment and disposal mean that urban and industrial discharges contribute significant quantities of substances causing heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion.
Practices and policies in different sectors can be a cause of environmental problems or a constraint to effective action. Most of the sources of the pollution problems and water quantity problems result from the activities of cities, rural towns and villages; industry, energy production and transport; and agriculture.
The key actors for change are the public authorities, public and private enterprises, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and the general public. Governments at national, district and local level define and implement regulatory programmes; they can play an important role in providing incentives, removing obstacles, and creating a climate which supports effective integrated water management. Local and international financing institutions will play a key role in providing the large sums of money to bring about the necessary actions and improvement.
Significant progress towards reducing pollution has been made in Germany and Austria. The economic transition that the majority of the countries are now undergoing has caused industrial and agricultural production to decline, thus temporarily reducing pollution loads. This has created a breathing space and an opportunity to integrate environmental objectives into industrial and agricultural policies before economic activity picks up.
The countries of the Danube River basin and interested governments and international institutions met in Sofia, in September 1991, to draw up an initiative to support and reinforce national actions for the restoration and protection of the Danube River - the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin (known as the Danube Environmental Programme). The countries, as a result, set up a Task Force and a Programme Coordination Unit. The Danube Environmental Programme supports monitoring, data collection and assessment, emergency response systems, and preinvestment activities which provided for an analysis of 17 tributary catchments in the basin. Alongside these, the Programme supports institutional strengthening, capacity building and NGO activities. A number of reports have been prepared, which are listed in Annex III. The procurement of sampling and analysis equipment is under way. An Accident Emergency Warning System for the Danube River basin (AEWS) has been designed, and procurement of equipment and training are being contracted. A number of actions identified in the Preinvestment Studies are under preparation for financing.
Furthermore, the Danube River basin countries and the European Union signed the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the River Danube (the Danube River Protection Convention) on 29 June 1994, in Sofia. The Convention is aimed at achieving sustainable and equitable water management. The signatories have agreed to cooperate on fundamental water management issues by taking: `all appropriate legal, administrative and technical measures to at least maintain and improve the current environmental and water quality conditions of the Danube River and of the waters in its catchment area and to prevent and reduce as far as possible adverse impacts and changes occurring or likely to be caused.'. (Art. 2.2) An International Commission will be legally established to provide a framework for regional cooperation under the Convention.
Purpose of the Strategic Action Plan
The Action Plan is an important result of the first three-year phase of the Danube Environmental Programme. It provides direction and a framework for achieving the goals of regional integrated water management and riverine environmental management expressed in the Danube River Protection Convention. It also aims to provide a framework in support of the transition from central management to a decentralised and balanced strategy of regulation and market-based incentives.
The Action Plan lays out strategies for overcoming the water environment related problems in the Danube River basin. It sets short, medium and long term targets and defines a series of actions to meet them. A short term target should be reached within a period of three years, that is by 1997. A medium term target should be reached within a period of ten years, that is by 2005. A series of actions to achieve these targets is described for each sector - public authorities at central, district and local level; municipal water companies and utilities; industrial enterprises; the general public and NGOs; and agricultural enterprises and the farming community.
These actions will be implemented through National Action Plans (NAPs) to be drawn up by the Danube basin countries assisted by the Danube Environmental Programme. The National Action Plans will be crucial in identifying projects that can be funded and implemented and their preparation is the first priority.
The Action Plan is primarily addressed to the officials of national, regional and local levels of government who share responsibility for implementing the Danube River Protection Convention and the national environmental action programmes under the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe. Industry, agriculture, non-governmental organisations and the public will also have important roles to play. The regional strategies set out in the Action Plan are intended to support national decision-making on water management, and on the restoration and protection of vulnerable and valuable areas in the Danube River basin.
Common principles
Despite the diversity of problems, interests and priorities across the Danube River basin, the countries share certain important values and have agreed on principles which underly the goals and actions of the Plan. They include the precautionary principle; the use of Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best Environmental Practice (BEP) for the control of pollution; the control of pollution at source; the polluter pays principle; and a commitment to regional cooperation and shared information among the partners implementing the Action Plan.
The Action Plan covers both local and regional concerns and emphasises actions that have both local and regional benefits. Local needs and problems will normally be the most important criteria for actions and investments in each country, but by participating in the Danube Programme and by signing the Danube River Protection Convention, the Danube countries are also committed to addressing regional and basinwide problems.
Common goals
The Action Plan has four - equally important - goals:
1. Reduce the negative impacts of activities in the Danube River basin and on riverine ecosystems and the Black Sea 2. Maintain and improve the availability and quality of water in the Danube River basin 3. Establish control of hazards from accidental spills 4. Develop regional water management cooperation.
Common strategic directions
The approaches to be taken are set out in a series of strategic directions covering key sectors and policies, including:
5. Phased expansion of sewerage and municipal waste water treatment capacity 6. Reduction of discharges from industry 7. Reduction of emissions from agriculture 8. Conservation, restoration and management of the wetland and floodplain areas of the tributaries and main stream of the Danube River basin 9. Integrated water management 10. Environmentally sound sectoral policies 11. Control of risks from accidents 12. Investments.
Common targets
Short term
13. Elaboration of NAPs for implementation of the Strategic Action Plan 14. Completion of integrated tributary river basin plans and revised water allocations and water use permits 15. Completion of wetland inventory conservation and management programmes 16. Adoption of consistent water quality objectives and criteria for all Danube tributaries and the main river 17. Completion of regulatory and permitting reform programme for water use and industrial enterprises 18. Adoption of emission limits for fertiliser plants 19. Adoption of emission limits based on Best Available Techniques (BAT) for new industrial sources and adoption of emission limits for livestock enterprises 20. Completion of a comprehensive system of information on the state of the riverine environment 21. National assessment of critical loads and load reduction targets for the highest priority river reaches 22. Evaluation of the critical load of nutrients from the Danube into the Black Sea 23. Completion of effective and comprehensive monitoring, warning and laboratory systems, including systems for exchange of information 24. Development of technical and management capacity building programmes for all actors and sectors
Medium term
25. Completion of pollutant emission inventory 26. Adoption and implementation of hazardous substance control legislation, including for transport 27. Introduction of regulations for fertiliser storage, handling, and application 28. Preparation of waste water and sewerage investment priorities for cities, rural towns and villages 29. Completion of rehabilitation and modernisation of existing municipal waste water treatment plants 30. Completion of projects on conservation and restoration of priority wetlands 31. Investment in highest priority sewerage and municipal waste water treatment capacity extensions 32. Introduction of environmentally sound agriculture policy reforms 33. Demonstrations of Best Environmental Pactice for use of fertilisers, pesticides, and other agrochemicals in agriculture 34. Completion of pilot and demonstration projects for manure handling, storage, disposal, and application 35. Introduction of phosphate- free detergents and ban on phosphate- containing detergents 36. Phased application of emission limits and incorporation of emission limits into permits for industries affecting critical reaches and sites
Long term
37. Completion of construction of municipal and industrial waste water treatment plants 38. Change to sustainable agriculture practices 39. Restoration of the natural purification capacity of the Danube and its tributaries.
What must be done at once
The actions in this Plan express three approaches: capacity building, policy development and pilot programmes. The development of National Action Plans will be crucial in identifying projects that can be funded and implemented. The governments and organisations endorsing this Plan will need to take steps to support this activity by:
40. Preparing a list of costed, immediate priority actions addressing major health, ecological and economic risks; indicating who should undertake the priority actions, how the financing will be obtained, and the timescale 41. Identifying a mechanism and the necessary resources to support the development and production of the National Action Plans 42. Assessing the risks and implications for public health and the protection of ecosystems if the short and medium term targets in the Strategic Action Plan are not met.
Common actions
The specific problems to be addressed are highly diverse and vary from country to country. A list of priority problems was established on a country basis, which are the basis of the short term actions given in chapter 2. They are listed according to the actors who should be responsible for developing and implementing solutions:
43. Public authorities at central, district, and local levels 44. Municipal water companies and utilities 45. Industrial enterprises 46. The general public and NGOs 47. Agricultural enterprises and the farming community.
Coordination
Each country will appoint a national authority to take the lead for coordinating the implementation of the Action Plan. The Danube Programme Coordination Unit and the future International Secretariat under the Danube River Protection Convention have important roles to play in coordinating national and international activities.
Financing
Although the international community can help Danube countries in the financing of priority actions, long term financing will have to be met primarily from within the countries themselves.
Although no total estimates of the costs of the actions proposed in this Action Plan can be provided, it is clear that there is a significant resource gap between the proposed actions and the available funding. To address this, the following actions should be taken:
48. Develop a financing plan (domestic and international) in order to identify what funds are available and what funds are needed to meet the most urgent and short term priorities 49. Initiate internal discussions in governments involving the Ministry of Finance and all relevant ministries to develop a financial plan for dealing with the most urgent and short term priorities 50. Earmark funds for transferring training and know- how to the riparian governments on raising funds for environmental initiatives 51. Initiate mechanisms which can make loans for environmental improvements more realistic, attractive and affordable for riparian countries 52. Provide a list of initiatives which have resulted from the pre- investment studies of projects which are being considered for development and/or funding by the internationat financing institutions.
Action Plan Update
The Action Plan should be updated after three years when it is hoped that good progress has been made to implement the short term actions. It is envisaged that the most emphasis in implementation will focus on action at the national level as the Danube countries with their varying economies and environmental situations seek to make the progress required.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60.
ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS
AEWSAccident Emergency Warning System
BAT Best Available Techniques
BEP Best Environmental Practice
BOD Biological Oxygen Demand
BOT Build-
Operate-
Transfer
CEE Central and eastern Europe
CEECCentral and eastern European countries
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CPC Country Programme Coordinator
DRPCDanube River Protection Convention
EAP Environmental Action Plan
EBRDEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ECEuropean Commission
ECE UN Economic Commission for Europe
ECU European Currency Unit
EIB European Investment Bank
EPDRB Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin
EUEuropean Union
G-
24The group of 24 industrialized nations (members of the OECD)
GEF Global Environment Facility
GIS Geographical Information System
IBRDInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development (The World
Bank)
IFI International Financing Institution(s)
IUCNThe World Conservation Union
K Potassium
m metre
m3/scubic metres per second
kmkilometre
MECUMillion European Currency Units
N Nitrogen
NAP National Action Programme
NGO Non-
Government
al
Organisati
on
NO3-
Nitrate
O&M Operation and maintenance
OECDOrganisation for Economic Co-
operation
and
Developmen
t
P Phosphorus
PAH Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCU (Danube) Programme Coordination Unit
p.e.Population equivalent
PHARE EC Programme of assistance for economic restructuring in the
countries of central and eastern Europe
sq. kmsquare kilometre
TACIS EC Programme of transfer of know-
how to
the New
Independen
t States
and
Mongolia
UNDPUnited Nations Development Programme
UNEPUnited Nations Environment Programme
UNESCOUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USEPA United States Agency for Environmental Protection
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
WWTPWaste water treatment plant(s)
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PART I
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND FRAMEWORK
61. This chapter provides a brief description of the most important environmental problems of the Danube River basin, the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin, the structure of the Action Plan, the Danube River Protection Convention and related international conventions, and the fundamental principles and approaches to environmental protection upon which the Action Plan is based.
1.1 The Danube River Basin
62. The Danube River basin is the heartland of central Europe. The main river is 2 857 km long and drains 817 000 sq. km including all of Hungary; most parts of Romania, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, and Slovakia; and significant parts of Bulgaria, Germany, the Czech Republic, Moldova and Ukraine. Territories of FR Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and small parts of Italy, Switzerland, Albania and Poland are also included in the basin, but data relating to these areas have not been included in this Action Plan. The Danube River discharges into the Black Sea through a delta which is the second largest natural wetland area in Europe. 63. The waters of the Danube River basin and its tributaries combine to make up an aquatic ecosystem of high economic, social and environmental value. It includes numerous important natural areas including wetlands and floodplain forests. It supports the drinking water supply, agriculture, industry, fishing, tourism and recreation, power generation, navigation and the end disposal of waste waters for a densely populated region of Europe. 64. A large number of dams, dikes, navigation locks and other hydraulic structures have been built to serve some of these important human activities, including over forty major reservoirs on the Danube River itself. But such structures has caused changes in flow pattern and damage to the functions and biodiversity of the river system. Furthermore, the intensity of agricultural, industrial and urban uses has created problems of water quality and quantity, and reduced biodiversity in the basin. These changes have caused significant environmental damage, such as reduced sediment transport, increased erosion and reduced self- purification capacity, including public health aspects in connection with drinking water supply of the population, recreation and bathing. 65. The most important problems (not in order of importance) affecting the health of the Danube River ecosystems and the water users in the basin are the high nutrient loads (nitrogen and phosphorus), changes in river flow patterns and sediment transport regimes, contamination with hazardous substances including oils, competition for available water, microbiological contamination, and contamination with substances causing heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion. These problems are presented in detail in Part II. 66. The aquatic habitats of the basin are part of a single system so that harmful activities in one section affect other sections. For example, the degradation of the delta and the north- west shelf region of the Black Sea is caused by eutrophication (to a great extent) from the cumulative inflow of nutrients from the Danube River. Nutrient and pollution loads coming from the river must be reduced if the health of the whole system, including that of the delta and Black Sea, are to be restored. This can be helped by natural buffering systems such as wetlands and floodplains, which also contribute to biological diversity. 67. Wastes from cities and industries, chemical fertilisers, and manure from intensive and large- scale livestock operations have poured into the river system and the groundwater, raising nutrient levels and causing eutrophication. Other highly polluting activities in the Danube River basin include petrochemicals processing, iron and metal processing, timber, paper and pulp, and municipal solid waste disposal. Microbiological contamination is a problem throughout the river basin. It is generally caused by the discharge of urban waste and storm waters, as well as by livestock and agricultural run- off. Inadequate waste treatment and disposal mean that urban and industrial discharges contribute significant quantities of substances causing heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion. 68. During the period of centralized planning systems, the central and eastern European countries did not develop full environmental protection policies which responded to the degradation of the river environment. Legal standards for environmental quality were often unenforced or unenforceable. 69. Significant progress towards reducing pollution has been made in the economically most developed countries. The middle and lower basin countries have invested in municipal water supply and waste water treatment facilities, although in many cases their performance has been below design levels because of lack of maintenance. The economic transition these countries are now undergoing has caused industrial production to decline and has thus reduced pollution loads. Comparable changes in agriculture have reduced the amounts of chemicals used which end up in surface and groundwaters. There is now an opportunity to take advantage of the breathing space provided by the transition and ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into industrial and agricultural policies before economic activity picks up. 70. Apart from Germany and Austria, all other Danube countries are undergoing fundamental transformation of their political, legal, administrative, economic and social systems. This transformation can bring about a better consideration of environmental needs. Industrial restructuring and agricultural reforms should reduce pollution and waste substantially by reversing the former regimes' emphasis on production. Policy and administrative reforms should also create opportunities for improvement of water quality and supply.
1.2 The regional response: the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin
71. The countries of the Danube River basin and interested international institutions met in Sofia in September 1991 to draw up an initiative to support and reinforce national actions for the restoration and protection of the Danube River - the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin - known as the Danube Environmental Programme. 72. The countries set up a Task Force and a Programme Coordination Unit to coordinate and support implementation of the Programme, which covers monitoring, data collection and assessment, emergency response systems, and pre- investment activities. The environmental situation of the Danube River basin in each country has been analysed. Reports have been prepared on non- point sources of pollution and on biological resources. The programme also supports institutional strengthening, capacity building and NGO activities. The assessment of current monitoring activities to develop a basin- wide evaluation has been completed. The procurement of sampling and analysis equipment is under way. An Accident Emergency Warning System for the Danube River basin has been designed, and procurement and training are underway.
1.3 The Danube River Protection Convention
13. The Danube River basin countries and the European Union signed the Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable Use of the River Danube (the Danube River Protection Convention) on 29 June 1994, in Sofia. It will come into force on the 90th day after ratification by the ninth country. The Convention is aimed at achieving sustainable and equitable water management. The signatories have agreed:
on `conservation, improvement and the rational use of surface and groundwaters in the catchment area'
to `control the hazards originating from accidents involving substances hazardous to water, floods and ice- hazards'
to `contribute to reducing the pollution loads of the Black Sea from sources in the catchment area' (Art. 2.1).
14. They agreed to cooperate on fundamental water management issues by taking:
`all appropriate legal, administrative and technical measures to at least maintain and improve the current environmental and water quality conditions of the Danube River and of the waters in its catchment area and to prevent and reduce as far as possible adverse impacts and changes occurring or likely to be caused.' (Art. 2.2)
73. An International Commission will be established to provide a framework for regional cooperation under the Convention. 74. The Danube countries have agreed to cooperate on implementing the Convention before it formally comes into force. The Action Plan will be an important tool to this end. They have also agreed to establish an interim International Secretariat. When the Convention enters into force, responsibility for the water- related parts of the Environmental Programme will be transferred to the International Commission and its Secretariat. In the meantime the interim Secretariat and the Environmental Programme Coordination Unit will work closely together.
1.4 The Strategic Action Plan
75. This Strategic Action Plan is the result of the first three- year phase of the Danube Environmental Programme. It provides direction and a framework for achieving the goals of regional integrated water management and riverine environmental management expressed in the Danube River Protection Convention. It also aims to provide a framework in support of the transition from central management to a decentralized and balanced strategy of regulation and market- based incentives. 76. The Action Plan lays out strategies for overcoming the water environment related problems in the Danube River basin. It sets targets to be met within ten years and defines a series of actions to meet them. 77. The Action Plan is addressed to the officials of national, regional and local levels of government who share responsibility for implementing the Convention and the national environmental action programmes under the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe. Industry, agriculture, NGOs and the public will also have important roles to play. The regional strategies set out in the Action Plan are intended to support national decision- making on water management, and on the restoration and protection of vulnerable and valuable areas in the Danube River basin. 78. The Action Plan supports the process of cooperation and collaboration set out in the Convention to address transboundary problems.
1.5 Related international agreements
79. Different Danube countries are parties to other international agreements that directly or indirectly affect the preparation and implementation of the Action Plan. They include: 80. Europe Association Agreements Europe Agreements have been concluded between the EU and Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania and Slovakia to prepare for their eventual accession to the European Union. A similar agreement is envisaged with Slovenia. The agreements provide for increased cooperation in a number of areas, including the environment. 81. It is foreseen that a gradual approximation of policies, laws, EU environmental standards and full central and eastern European (CEE) participation in the European environmental monitoring and networking systems developed by the European Environmental Agency will take place. Recognizing that the CEE countries are countries in transition, and taking into account the severe economic and financial constraints they are experiencing, it is expected that this will be a medium-term process. 82. Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe (EAP) In April 1993, the EAP was endorsed by the Environment Ministers of the region of the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE) and the Environment Commissioner of the European Union. The EAP represents a broad consensus on environment and development. It calls for government action in three areas: first, the integration of environmental considerations into the process of economic reconstruction to ensure sustainable development; second, institutional capacity building - including improvement of legal and administrative systems as well as management, training and education; third, immediate assistance which brings immediate or short- term relief to regions where human health or natural ecosystems are severely jeopardised, and taking into account transboundary environmental problems. The EAP offers illustrative investment projects for priority needs. 83. Convention on the protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes The Convention was adopted by the Senior Advisers to ECE Governments on Environmental and Water Problems in March 1992, and signed by 22 countries and the European Community. Due to come into force when 16 countries have ratified it, it will strengthen the protection and ecologically sound management of surface and groundwaters by providing a framework for regional cooperation on transboundary problems. 84. Convention on the protection of the Black Sea against pollution (Black Sea Convention) The Convention established a common legal regime for controlling marine pollution in the Black Sea. It was signed by the six Black Sea coastal countries in April 1992, and came into force in February 1994. The Convention contains a legal framework for the establishment of a Black Sea Commission, and provides protocols for protection against land- based sources of pollution, for regulating dumping, and for emergency response in the case of spills. The secretariat for the Commission is to be established in Istanbul. 85. Declaration on the protection of the Black Sea (Odessa Declaration) Adopted in April 1993, the Declaration expresses principles, goals, common priorities, and lists nineteen regional and national actions to be taken by the Black Sea states to rehabilitate, protect and preserve the Black Sea. Amongst the actions are: pollution control measures including the harmonisation of standards; assessment of contaminants and their sources; and integrated coastal zone management and compulsory environmental impact assessment. 86. Convention on wetlands of international importance, especially as wildfowl habitat (Ramsar Convention) The Convention, signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971, sets out measures for the protection of wetlands, particularly those which are important wildfowl habitats. It introduces the principle of the `wise use' of all wetlands, not only those listed under the Convention: `wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem'. The 80 contracting parties and the former USSR have adopted a statement on `Guidance for the implementation of the Wise Use Concept', one of the key elements of which is development and implementation of national wetland policies as tools for the delivery of wise use. The Convention has been ratified by all the Danube states except Moldova and Ukraine. 87. Convention on biological diversity The Convention was signed by 72 countries and the EU at the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in July 1992. Eight of the Danube states are signatories. Its objectives are the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of natural resources, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits of the use of genetic resources. It is based on the principle that states have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources according to their own environmental policies. They also have the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not damage the environment of other states or areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. 88. Draft Danube Basin Ecological Convention The Danube countries are presently negotiating a draft Danube Basin Ecological Convention, which will be based on a comprehensive environmental approach with special emphasis on nature conservation. Once the proposed convention is signed, it will be taken into account in the further development of cooperation in the Danube basin and continued updating of this Strategic Action Plan.
1.6 Fundamental principles and approaches for environmental protection
31. Despite the diversity of problems, interests and priorities across the Danube River basin, the Danube countries share certain values and principles relating to the environment and to the conservation of natural resources. These values and principles underly the goals and actions for the restoration and protection of the Danube River basin set out in this Action Plan.
The precautionary principle
32. The precautionary principle states that planning and actions should take into account the possibility that adverse effects might occur, even when firm evidence is lacking. In other words, it is better to be safe than sorry. It may justify limits on the discharge of a hazardous substance even though adverse effects on human health or the environment have not been conclusively proven. The lack of information about the state of the environment in the Danube River basin and the general lack of understanding of the complex dynamics and relationships in the riverine and aquatic environment make this principle especially relevant to the Action Plan.
33. The CEE countries, in particular, will be taking many strategic decisions regarding industrial development and agricultural policy which could have far reaching effects on water and environmental quality. Use of the precautionary principle in making policy and investment choices which might affect the environment of the Danube River basin can help bring greater concern for the environment into decisions in other sectors.
Best Available Techniques/Best Environmental Practice (BAT/BEP)
34. Best Available Techniques (BAT) mean the latest stage of development (state of the art) of processes, of facilities or of methods of operation which indicate the practical suitability of a particular measure for limiting discharges, emissions and waste. It is applied to industrial and other point sources of pollution. Best Environmental Practice (BEP) means the application of the most appropriate combination of sectoral environmental control strategies and measures. It is applied to non-point sources of pollution such as agriculture. These approaches do not imply fixed, predetermined solutions to problems. The choice of BAT or BEP depends on practical and economic factors as well as technologies. The result should be the adoption of the most cost-effective solutions, taking into account the full value of environmental functions and processes, and biological diversity.
Control of pollution at the source
35. The Action Plan gives higher priority to preventive actions, such as the reduction of waste through cleaner technologies and processes, than to curative actions. It is generally less expensive to prevent the creation of harmful wastes or pollution than to repair the damage to the environment afterwards. Reduction of pollution at source can also be encouraged by changes in patterns of consumption, for example if consumers select environmentally benign products such as phosphate-free detergents or recyclable packaging materials. Reducing harmful materials in products lessens reliance on costly end-of-pipe control technologies and helps to reduce the generation of hazardous wastes. Environmental audits have proven to be a useful tool in identifying ways to control industrial pollution and wastes at the source.
The polluter pays principle
36. The polluter pays principle and the related `user pays' principle state that the polluter or user of natural resources should pay for the cost of maintaining the resources or repairing the damage done to them, usually through a fee or levy paid to government. These fees offer financial incentives to polluters and users of natural resources to reduce pollution and make more efficient use of resources. The fees can also provide much-needed revenues to water management authorities for maintenance and investment.
Regional cooperation
37. Regional cooperation means the full participation in and utilisation of regional mechanisms and structures for international cooperation, consultation and coordination on policy and action. Water quality and quantity and the health of the river's aquatic habitat and biodiversity depend on what all the water users in the river basin are doing. Regional cooperation can strengthen the efforts of the Danube countries to adopt and implement legal, administrative and technical measures to prevent and reduce transboundary impacts; to monitor water quality and resources; and to harmonise water quality standards and pollution controls.
Shared information
38. The sharing and exchange of data and information is fundamental to regional cooperation and to the understanding and solution of regional problems. The Danube countries should share information on, for example, sediment transport and erosion, nutrient balances, low flow and water quality control, legislation and integrated planning (see Article 12 of the Danube River Protection Convention).
1.7 Responsible sectors and actors
Sectors
39. Practices and policies in different sectors can be a cause of environmental problems or a constraint to effective action. Some of the sources of the pollution problems and water quantity problems result from the activities of:
40. Cities Many water management problems occur close to or downstream of urban population and industrial centres. Municipal waste water, storm water and seepage from improperly stored materials are important sources of surface and groundwater pollution. Waste water is a particularly important source of organic materials, nutrients and microbiological water pollution.
41. Rural towns and villages In rural areas, where infrastructure is rarely as well developed as in urban areas, water supply and sewerage and waste water treatment facilities are usually small and less well maintained. Abstraction of water for drinking is often from groundwater sources such as shallow hand-dug wells which are at risk from microbiological contamination derived from cesspits and leaking sewers. The lack of effective sewerage in small towns and villages also threatens shallow ground and surface sources of drinking water. Any uncontrolled solid waste disposal or poorly maintained storage of toxic and hazardous chemicals places groundwater at further risk of contamination.
42. Industry, energy production and transport The chemical, fertiliser, mining, food processing, metallurgy, tanning, and pulp and paper industries have been identified as giving rise to particular problems. River transport contributes to oil pollution. Coal-fired power plants are sources of pollutants from flue gases and ashes. Many of the hydraulic structures built for navigation and hydropower generation cause environmental problems.
43. Agriculture This sector is an important source of pollution of surface and groundwater through fertiliser and agrochemicals. Pollution from manure from large livestock farms is a particular problem. Improper cultivation practices cause erosion and areal run-off. Irrigation makes heavy demands on water supply and drainage causes alterations in flows and water tables.
Actors
44. In all sectors, the key actors for change are the public authorities, public and private enterprises, NGOs and the general public as both citizens and as consumers. Key relationships between these actors and the principal sectors and sources of pollution of the Danube River basin are outlined in Table 1.2.
45. Public authorities Governments at national, district and local level define and implement regulatory programmes; they can play an important role in providing incentives, removing obstacles, and creating a climate which supports effective integrated water management.
46. Public and private enterprises Under the former economic system in the CEE countries, most enterprises were government-owned. Privatisation is making this view less important. It is proceeding slowly. Most power generation enterprises, water utilities and heavy industries are still owned by government.
47. The general public and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) Every person in the Danube River basin has several possible roles - as a consumer of goods and services; as a producer of waste at home and at their workplace; as a user of recreation facilities; and as citizens whose choices and actions express their spiritual, social, aesthetic and environmental values. NGOs are established by members of the public to promote public and governmental awareness of environmental issues and to assist in the development of appropriate policies.
1.8 Aspects of integrated and regional water management
48. Integrated water management concerns both minimising the conflicts between different water uses and users, and optimising the economic, health and environmental benefits from water resources on a sustainable basis. Some types of water use do not necessarily conflict. Other uses are exclusive or lead to conflicts about the quality or quantity of water available to other users. Although the surface waters of the Danube and its tributaries are constantly being renewed, user conflicts cannot be solved while the polluting emissions continue. The groundwater needs particularly careful management since the degradation or reduction of groundwater is often irreversible or requires an extremely long period, in some cases centuries, for renewal.
49. Every use of surface waters requires maintenance of a minimum flow at all times or during critical periods. Human activities can harm water quality by discharging pollutants and waste products into the rivers or underground aquifers of the Danube River basin. Hence, the water quality management objectives for a river reach depend on the water uses that will be maintained there. The ultimate criterion will be set according to the users with the need for the highest quality of water or to protect the ecosystems and biodiversity.
50. The water issues and problems of the Danube basin may have different regional or transboundary impacts. Some problems, like water shortage in smaller tributaries, heterotrophic growth, oxygen depletion and microbiological pollution, are normally confined to limited river reaches or water bodies. They may cause health, economic or ecological conflicts of local, national and even transboundary importance. On the other hand, the pollution load of nutrients will normally not cause severe local water quality problems. But, it is one of the most important problems of the Danube's wetlands and the Black Sea. 51. This Action Plan covers both local and regional concerns and emphasizes actions that have both local and regional benefits. Local needs and problems will normally be the most important criteria for actions and investments in each country. By participating in the Danube Programme and by signing the Convention, the Danube countries are also committed to solving regional and basinwide problems.
Table 1.2
Links between the sectors and water management problems
SectorsCities Rural Towns and IndustryAgriculture and
VillagesLivestock
ProblemsBOD NutrientsBOD Nutrients BOD, COD andNutrients BOD
MicrobiologicalMicrobiological hazardous Hazardous
Haz. waste Water shortagesubstancessubstances Water
Water shortage Nutrients Water shortage
shortage
Table 1.3
Links between the actors and the actions to water management problems
ACTORS ACTIONS
Cities Rural Towns and IndustryAgriculture and
VillagesLivestock
Public * Invest in * Manage* Regulate* Administer
Authorities infrastructure sanitation andhazardous waste training and
* Establish drinking water* Regulateextension
standards ofprotectionwaste water programmes *
drinking water programmes *discharges *Administer
service *Optimise waterAdministereffective water
Insure adequate allocation andeffective water fees * Optimise
tariffs *distributionand pollution water
Optimise water fees * Optimise allocation and
allocation and water distribution
distributionallocation and
distribution
Public & * Operate waste * Control * Pre-treat * Adopt
Privatewater treatment seepage fromindustrialimported
Enterprisesfacilities *solid waste waste * Reducepractices for
Pre-treatdisposal into and treat use of
industrial wastegroundwater * industrialfertilisers and
Dispose ofwaste agrochemicals *
hazardous waste Manage
safelylivestock manure
General Public * Pay for water * Pay to* Support water * Support water
& NGOs service * protect quality quality
Conserve waterdrinking waterobjectives *objectives *
* Adopt sources * Adopt Support Manage
environmental environmental effective livestock
consumption consumption regulations manure *
standards * standards * Promote organic
ManageManagefarming *
household household and Support
hazardous farm wastes * effective
wastes *Support regulations
Support effective
effective regulations
regulations
Chapter 2 The Strategic Action Plan
2.1 Introduction
1. The Strategic Action Plan describes a framework for regional action which will be implemented through National Action Plans (NAPs). It contains: four goals for the environment of the Danube River basin; strategic directions; a series of targets within a timeframe; and a phased programme of actions to meet these targets.
2. The goals set the priorities. The strategic directions explain the approach. The targets identify necessary policy and regulatory reforms, and key programmes and institutional measures that need to be taken. A sustained effort over the coming years will be necessary. Government, industry, agriculture and the public must cooperate to implement the phased programme of actions which meets these targets.
3. The nature, extent, sources and causes of each problem are discussed in Part II.
2.2 Goals
4. The four strategic goals of the Action Plan are derived from the objectives of the Convention and the principles of integrated water management:
* Improvement of aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity in the Danube River basin and the reduction of pollution loads entering the Black Sea
* Maintaining and improving the quantity and quality of water in the Danube River basin
* Control of damage from accidental spills
* Development of regional cooperation in water management.
These goals can only be achieved by means of integrated and sustainable management of the waters of the Danube River basin. `Reduce the negative impact of activities in the Danube River basin and on the riverine ecosystems and the Black Sea'
5. The aquatic habitats of the basin are part of a single system, so that harmful activities in one section affect other sections. For example, the degradation of the delta and the north-west shelf region of the Black Sea is caused by eutrophication (to a great extent) from the cumulative inflow of nutrients from the Danube River. Nutrient and pollution loads coming from the river must be reduced if the health of the whole system, including that of the delta and Black Sea, are to be restored. In addition, this will lead to the restoration of the Danube River biodiversity.
6. The most important problems affecting the health of the Danube ecosystems are:
* High nutrient loads (nitrogen and phosphorus) and eutrophication
* Organic matter causing heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion
* Changes in river flow patterns and sediment transport regimes
* Contamination with hazardous substances, including oils.
`Maintain and improve the availability and quality of water in the Danube River basin'
7. The surface and groundwaters of the Danube River basin should be managed to ensure their availability and quality for a wide range of socially and economically important functions such as drinking water, fisheries, industry, irrigation, recreation and biodiversity.
8. These water uses are facing problems, in particular caused by:
* High nutrient loads and eutrophication
* Contamination with hazardous substances, including oils
* Microbiological contamination
* Contamination with organic matter causing heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion
* Conflicts for available water.
`Establish control of hazards from accidental spills'
9. Accidental spills of pollutants into rivers and lakes can cause sudden changes in surface water quality which can lead to emergency shutdown of drinking water intakes, fish kills, and serious damage to ecosystems. In the longer term, it can render water resources unusable for other uses such as irrigation over days, weeks or months. A particularly serious incident could have severe impacts for a considerable distance downstream, increasing the economic losses caused by the accident. However, the effects of accidental spills are rarely irreversible. Effective monitoring, emergency response and the speed with which it can be organised can limit its effects.
`Develop regional water management cooperation'
10. Governments in the Danube River basin have agreed to cooperate in developing joint management policies and actions. Critical areas include the exchange of data, information about agreements, laws and measures on water management; the adoption and implementation of laws, regulations and technical measures to prevent and reduce transboundary impacts of pollution; the monitoring of water quality under Article 9 of the Convention; and the harmonisation of requirements, common emission limits, environmental quality standards and objectives.
11. To achieve these goals, it is necessary to:
* Introduce a regional approach to Danube water management problems
* Provide a framework within which the Danube River basin countries can identify common and shared problems and coordinate national objectives and priorities
* Establish a regional framework for action that is agreed by all Danube River basin countries and international institutions.
2.3 Strategic directions
12. The strategic directions outlined below give the approach to be taken. For example, the Action Plan contains a phased approach to investment in municipal waste water treatment which emphasises the upgrading of existing infrastructure in the short term. Some of these strategic directions apply to several sectors.
2.3.1 Priority sectors
Phased expansion of sewerage and municipal waste water treatment capacity
13. Initially, the policy would concentrate on rehabilitation and modernisation of existing facilities to achieve their full functional performance, and on strengthening and building up management and operational capacity. It would also introduce proper sewage sludge handling. During the medium term period, the highest priority capacity expansion would begin. Waste water treatment would initially focus on BOD/COD, suspended solids, and phosphorus. An immediate need is to begin strengthening the financial condition of local governments and water companies.
Reduction of discharges from industry
14. The imposition of emission limits on new industrial sources, and on new production technology, should be consistent with the best waste minimisation and management practices (BAT). A strong regulatory and enforcement programme should be developed.
15. Compliance agreements with existing industrial plants can achieve progressive emission reductions, e.g. by phased introduction of pre-treatment conditions before discharge which respect water quality objectives and criteria over the medium term. The priority industries are tanning, fertiliser, metals, and major producers of oxygen depleting substances.
Reduction of emissions from agriculture
16. Environmentally sound national agricultural policies should be introduced to control nutrients and hazardous substances. Key actions are erosion abatement, nutrient balancing, proper manure and fertiliser handling including storage, and a decrease in the input of pesticides (BEP).
Conservation, restoration and management of the wetland and floodplain areas of the tributaries and main stream of the Danube River basin
17. The natural systems of the Danube basin, including wetlands, should be treated as water users, along with people, industry and agriculture. A network of wetlands throughout the basin provides the most effective means of utilising their functions. Wetland management and restoration should be seen as key elements of river basin management. All existing wetlands in the basin should be conserved and wetland rehabilitation should be promoted.
2.3.2 Policies
Integrated water management
18. Integrated water management means covering water allocations, water use and water discharge permits on the basis of integrated and comprehensive plans developed by means of a broad-based participatory planning process. It focuses on the tributary river basin or sub-basin.
Environmentally sound sectoral policies
19. A clear and consistent legal and economic framework is needed to encourage investment in waste reduction and control, to introduce environmentally sound products and practices, and to mobilise financial resources for water and environmental management. This should focus on incentives (implementing a more effective pollution fee and fine system), and on financing actions (developing a viable funding mechanism for project investment).
Control of risks from accidents
20. An Accident Emergency Warning System (AEWS) in the Danube catchment is being set up. Preventive measures should be introduced for industrial sources, including registers of substances stored and used, site contingency plans, and harbour reception facilities for receiving bilge oil, sludges and waste water from ships.
Investments
21. Investment policy should focus on the rehabilitation and expansion of drinking water systems, on municipal waste water and solid waste management systems, on industrial pre-treatment plants and on the replacement of industrial process technology to minimise and eliminate waste. The clean-up and restoration of polluted sites are also important. Planning and project preparation, particularly the feasibility study, is vitally important for developing affordable financing plans and implementation plans.
2.4 Targets
22. A number of short and medium term targets will be identified in the National Action Plans (NAPs) to reach the four goals of the Strategic Action Plan. Preparation of the NAPs is the first priority. A short term target should be reached within a period of three years, that is by 1997. A medium term target should be reached within a period of ten years, that is by 2005. Most actions related to these targets will be included in the NAPs, with adjustments of the timescale where appropriate.
2.4.1 Short term targets
- Elaboration of NAPs for implementation of the Strategic Action Plan
- Completion of integrated tributary river basin plans and revised water allocations and water use permits
- Completion of wetland inventory conservation and management programmes
- Adoption of consistent water quality objectives and criteria for all Danube tributaries and the main river
- Completion of regulatory and permitting reform programme for water use and industrial enterprises
- Adoption of emission limits for fertiliser plants
- Adoption of emission limits based on Best Available Techniques (BAT) for new industrial sources and adoption of emission limits for livestock enterprises
- Completion of a comprehensive system of information on the state of the riverine environment
- National assessment of critical loads and load reduction targets for the highest priority river reaches
- Evaluation of the critical load of nutrients from the Danube into the Black Sea
- Completion of effective and comprehensive monitoring, warning and laboratory systems, including systems for the exchange of information
- Development of technical and management capacity building programmes for all actors and sectors
2.4.2 Medium term targets
- Completion of pollutant emission inventory
- Adoption and implementation of hazardous substance control legislation, including for transport
- Introduction of regulations for fertiliser storage, handling, and application
- Preparation of waste water and sewerage investment priorities for cities, rural towns and villages
- Completion of the rehabilitation and modernisation of existing municipal waste water treatment plants
- Completion of projects on the conservation and restoration of priority wetlands
- Investment in highest priority sewerage and municipal waste water treatment capacity expansions
- Introduction of environmentally sound agriculture policy reforms
- Demonstration of Best Environmental Practice (BEP) for the use of fertilisers, pesticides, and other agrochemicals in agriculture
- Completion and application of pilot and demonstration projects for manure handling, storage, and disposal
- Introduction of phosphate-free detergents and ban on phosphate-containing detergents
- Phased application of emission limits and incorporation of emission limits into permits for industries affecting critical reaches and sites
2.4.3 Long term targets
- Completion of the construction of municipal and industrial waste water treatment plants
- Change to sustainable agricultural practices
- Restoration of natural purification capacity of the Danube River and its tributaries
2.5 Short and medium term actions
23. The Strategic Action Plan emphasises three approaches: capacity building, policy development and pilot programmes. Most actions will be included in the National Action Plans, with adjustment of the time scale where appropriate. National Action Plans will be crucial in identifying projects that can be funded and implemented. Several things must be done immediately to launch their development. The governments and organisations approving this Action Plan will need to:
- Prepare a list of costed, immediate priority actions addressing major health, ecological and economic risks; indicate who should undertake the priority actions, how the financing will be obtained, and the timescale
- Identify a mechanism and the necessary resources to support the production of the National Action Plans
- Assess the risks and implications for public health and the protection of ecosystems of not meeting the short and medium term targets in the Strategic Action Plan.
24. The activities identified in the Action Plan to be carried out during the short term period of 1995 - 1997 lay the foundation for the successful implementation of the medium-term targets. The end of this period seems to be an appropriate time to prepare the first update and revision of the Action Plan.
25. The problems to be addressed are highly diverse and vary from country to country. They include: investments in the control of point source pollution, measures to control non-point source pollution, management improvement in the operation of hydraulic structures, and the restoration and protection of wetlands, river banks, etc. For the short term activities a list of priority problems was established on a country basis. Taking all relevant studies into account, they are the basis of the short term actions presented in the following paragraphs. In addition, a table is presented in section 2.5.6. summarising these priority problems, that focuses on immediate needs, including investments in point source pollution control (`hot spots').
26. The Action Plan provides guidance on what is needed in the Danube River basin. The activities are listed according to the actors who should be responsible for developing and implementing solutions. These actors are:
* Public authorities at central, district, and local levels
* Municipal water companies and utilities * Industrial enterprises
* The general public and NGOs
* Agricultural enterprises and the farming community.
2.5.1 Public authorities at central, district and local level
Strengthen monitoring and information systems
27. A high priority is to strengthen monitoring capabilities, including laboratory capacity and quality, and the development of water and environmental information systems. This should be within an integrated system to meet management and decision-making needs at the regional, national, and local level. Important issues include tributary basin level nutrient balances, microbiological contamination, organic micro-pollutants, and pesticides and toxic metals. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Carry out training programmes in sampling and analytical procedures, laboratory management, etc.
- Improve laboratory equipment and facility standards and implement Danube intercalibration and quality control programme
- Complete nutrient balances for pilot river basins
- Complete sediment quality inventory
- Harmonise monitoring and assessment methods between the countries
- Harmonise and put into operation the first phase of the joint monitoring system and start a programme for monitoring water quality, quantity, sediments and riverine ecosystems
- Adopt harmonised methods for transboundary impact assessments of pollution and damage to riverine regions
- Adopt harmonised monitoring and assessment methods for waste water discharges
- Complete inventory of the emissions and main point sources of pollution and estimate the water pollution from non-point sources
- Adopt harmonised methodology for preparing water balances
- Complete water balances for pilot river basins
- Design and implement information system for data base management and for exchange of information on river conditions, emissions, monitoring data, measures, regulations and accidents
- Develop environmental education in primary and secondary schools
- Develop public awareness campaigns to encourage changes in public behaviour.
medium term
- Complete nutrient balances for the Danube River basin
- Complete water balances for the Danube River basin.
Improve water quality management objectives and criteria
28. Water quality objectives aim at protecting multiple uses of water including the needs of aquatic ecosystems. In particular, they provide a better basis for regulation, give a clear message on water use priorities, and, when tailored to meet local needs and capability, provide a more flexible basis for developing a consensus on strategy and multi-stage action at the tributary basin level. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Complete water quality and hydrological assessment in pilot river basins
- Determine water uses and establish water quality objectives and criteria in pilot river basins
- Determine critical reaches and critical loads and load reduction targets in pilot river basins.
Reform regulations, permitting and enforcement
29. The Action Plan is based on the integration of industrial permitting and economic incentives. Regulatory reform should include comprehensive training of personnel in planning, permitting, and enforcement. It should also include the provision of necessary equipment for field investigations and monitoring. A critical problem in the development and implementation of effective waste water management activities is the practice of industrial plants discharging their waste waters with little or no pre-treatment into the municipal waste water system. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Adopt regulations governing the permitting of waste water discharges into water courses and drainage systems
- Adopt emission limits for point sources based on BAT and harmonised according to the provisions of the Convention
- Adopt provisions for preventing and reducing non-point source pollution from agriculture based on BEP
- Adopt a harmonised methodology for environmental impact assessment based on international conventions and experience
- Complete installation of and training in new equipment for field investigations and monitoring
- Establish training programmes for local and regional permitting and enforcement staff
- Review legal and policy arrangements affecting the storage, handling and disposal of hazardous waste
- Review environmental protection regulations concerning international shipping and river harbours
- Complete management information system to support administration of enforcement and permitting system.
medium term
- Ban the manufacture and sale of phosphate-containing detergents
- Adopt hazardous waste legislation and administrative structures
- Complete implementation of hazardous waste management legislation.
Reform sectoral policies and economic incentive framework
30. Policies and economic and fiscal measures should be introduced to encourage water conservation, better water and waste management, and the shift to phosphate-free detergents. Price policies that eliminate subsidies on fertilisers and agrochemicals harmful to water quality should be continued and strengthened. Priority should be given to improvement of the present system of discharge fees and pollution fines that encourage pollution prevention and compliance, and water charges and tariffs that encourage water conservation and efficiency. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Revise pollution fee and fine systems
- Establish water conservation programmes
- Revise water user charge systems
- Develop environmentally sound agricultural practices with emphasis on reducing erosion, and on nutrient balancing, manure handling and land use management.
medium term
- Strengthen or establish new water and environmental management financing mechanisms.
Adopt integrated investment and operation planning at river basin and project level
31. Management plans for water systems should be developed or revised to optimise water allocation and distribution, including to aquatic habitats, where necessary. They should take into account downstream impacts (erosion, disruption of habitat, water quality changes, water shortages, and low assimilative capacity during low flow periods).
short term
- Establish training programmes in integrated river basin planning and public participation
- Initiate pilot integrated river basin plans for selected tributaries
- Develop decision support systems for integrated planning in pilot river basins
- Work undertaken in pilot river basins should be jointly selected and coordinated within the framework of both the DRPC and the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin
- Select and coordinate work undertaken in pilot river basins, jointly by the PCU and the interim secretariat, as long as the DRPC is not in force; afterwards according to chapter 1, para. 16.
medium term
- Complete integrated river basin plans for the tributaries.
Establish effective institutional arrangements to protect drinking water sources
32. A focused effort is needed for the serious problems of maintaining and restoring the quality of drinking water sources. Pollutants include nitrate, persistent organic micro-pollutants, and heavy metals. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Identify and make an inventory of areas requiring protection for raw drinking water sources
- Make an inventory of and assess degraded groundwater sources, especially shallow groundwater areas
- Make an inventory of rural sanitation needs, including assessment of low-cost technology options
- Establish legal and institutional framework for the monitoring and protection of raw drinking water sources.
medium term
- Implement rural sanitation programme in groundwater protection areas
- Implement programme to restore degraded groundwater sources, and if necessary develop new sources for areas affected by degraded supplies
- Rehabilitate surface water reservoirs for drinking water supplies.
Conserve and restore wetlands and other environmentally sensitive areas
33. Conservation, restoration and management of riverine habitat and biodiversity is important for maintaining the natural capital of the basin (its biodiversity) and to reestablish its natural purification and assimilative capacity (Table 2.1). Measures must be based on the principle of `wise use' of the Ramsar Convention, and should concentrate on priority sites. Integrated management and restoration plans should be prepared in collaboration with other concerned governments, local authorities, international organisations, and NGOs. Training and capacity building programmes at local level should be given a high priority. Programmes, inventories, legislation and policies should be realistic and integrate environmental concerns in the development process. Actions to be taken include:
short term
- Prepare an inventory of important riverine habitats and biodiversity
- Initiate legislative and management actions to prevent the loss of wetlands and to promote wetland rehabilitation
- Establish criteria and guidelines for identification of critical areas and sites, complete identification, and begin pilot management and restoration programmes.
medium term
- Complete pilot riverine habitat management programmes
- Implement new institutional and legal arrangements for permanent habitat and biodiversity management, including staff development and training.
2.5.2 Municipal water companies and utilities
Restructure and strengthen municipal water management
34. The priority is the need to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of water company management and operation so as to support investment in the rehabilitation, modernisation, and expansion of existing water services, including waste water treatment. This includes improving the technical and managerial competence of the staff of the water enterprises, restructuring water enterprises, and supporting the financial independence of the enterprises. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Establish training programmes for water company personnel in modern management practices (e.g. accounting, financial management and budgeting, billing and collection, maintenance and operation, capital budgeting and planning)
- Complete studies on the restructuring of water companies and take necessary steps to begin restructuring
- Complete restructuring and programme for water companies to become financially independent and self-sustaining, and establish cost recovery and tariff policies.
Rehabilitate and modernise facilities to improve safety, reliability and performance
35. The first priority is to upgrade existing facilities and to complete partly constructed facilities for municipal and industrial water supply, sewerage and waste water treatment, since in the short and medium term, this approach is likely to be the most cost-effective means of reducing waste water pollution loads. Priority should be given to facilities that are routinely bypassed or are heavily overloaded, that are not meeting design functional or performance standards, to completing partly constructed facilities and to replacing any substandard civil works. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Complete inventory and assessment of sewer systems and municipal waste water treatment plants performance and loads.
medium term
- Complete priority investment programme for rehabilitation and modernisation of sewer systems and waste water treatment plants
- Introduce measures to achieve optimal use of water consistent with maintaining public health and minimal wastage of water.
long term
- Complete rehabilitation and modernisation programme.
Phased expansion of sewerage and waste water treatment capacity
36. Phased expansion involves the development of treatment capacity in stages that are based on known and proven technology and cost-benefit analysis. It allows investments to be targeted at the most serious problems in line with available resources. Actions to be undertaken include:
medium term
- Complete priority investment programme for sewer systems and municipal waste water treatment capacity expansion
- Implement a programme for increasing the capacity of the highest priority municipal waste water treatment plants.
long term
- Complete priority investment programme for the construction of new sewer systems and waste water treatment plants.
2.5.3 Industrial enterprises
Strengthen environmental management for pollution control and waste reduction
37. Environmental management in industrial enterprises needs to be strengthened to reduce pollution and waste. Industrial managers should carry out environmental audits and use them to identify win-win projects and waste reduction measures (measures that pay for themselves in improved productivity and provide substantial environmental benefits). Within this effort, priorities will need to be established in relation to critical river reaches and loads. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Complete a training programme in industrial auditing, waste reduction and management for industrial staff, consulting firms, and regulatory staff
- Introduce good housekeeping practices in industrial plants
- Develop training programmes for plant managers to improve environmental management.
medium term
- Implement win-win projects (e.g. the elimination of chromium emissions from tanneries, reduction of nitrogen emissions from fertiliser plants).
long term
- Complete investment in low waste technology and/or waste water treatment facilities.
Hazardous waste management
38. An effective system of monitoring and tracing the production and disposal of hazardous and toxic substances should be developed that would enable controls to be enforced. Low-waste processes and practices which encourage the reuse of hazardous wastes and reduce the total volume of discharges should be supported. Priority should be given to investments in solid and hazardous waste management in cases where existing disposal is unsafe, including sites presenting significant documented risk of pollution to surface and groundwater. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Complete hazardous waste inventory, identification and assessment of priority sites
- Prepare a programme for the clean-up of contaminated sites.
medium term
- Implement programme of clean-up of priority sites
- Introduce low-waste production technology.
long term
- Complete clean-up of contaminated sites.
2.5.4 The general public and NGOs
Increase public awareness and participation
39. The participation of the public and NGOs in environmental awareness and education programmes will be important in developing and sustaining a consensus on actions to be taken. The media should be used extensively. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Participate in public awareness programmes in pilot river basins
- Enhance public participation in decision making by establishing national working groups for specific projects
- Enhance public participation in the development and implementation of environmental legislation.
- Develop and implement a 3-year programme of small projects to increase public awareness and participation.
2.5.5 Agricultural enterprises and the farming community
40. Control of run-off from agricultural enterprises and livestock operations is a critical element in the short and longer term strategy to restore the balance and health of the Danube riverine habitats and biodiversity. What is needed is a change to sustainable agriculture with minimisation of erosion and optimal use of fertiliser and pesticides. Pilot and demonstration projects for improved storage and application of chemical and natural fertilisers, construction of model storage and treatment facilities, and testing of new equipment for manure spreading have to be set up. Priority should be given to strengthening agricultural extension services concerning the application of chemical fertiliser, manure and pesticides. Actions to be undertaken include:
short term
- Develop training programmes for sustainable agriculture practices.
medium term
- Complete pilot and demonstration projects of Best Environmental Practice for the use of fertilisers, pesticides and other agrochemicals; manure handling, storage, and disposal; and water and soil conservation. Disseminate information about these practices
- Phased elimination of significant manure discharge into surface water.
long term
- Change to sustainable agriculture practices.
2.5.6 `Hot spots'
41. The Danube countries have drawn up a comprehensive list of sites of `hot spots'. A `hot spot' may be a local land area, stretch of surface water or specific aquifer which is subject to excessive pollution from an identifiable source and which requires particular action to prevent or reduce the degradation caused. These are set out in the following table, in relation to the source and type of pollution, and in some cases, the estimated clean-up cost.
42. No hot spots are listed in Germany or Austria, due to their longstanding water quality legislation and investment in municipal and industrial waste water treatment facilities. In Germany, the occasional increased levels of contaminants and nutrient loads are being reduced by current measures. In Austria, although the quality of groundwater in general is good, problems have been recorded in the eastern and southern regions which are more intensively used for crop production and cattle breeding. Nitrate and the pesticide atrazin are found in excess of EU drinking water limit values, and intensive efforts have been made to reduce these to acceptable levels under Austrian law.
2.6 Keeping the Action Plan relevant
Responsible Bodies
43. National authorities Each country should appoint a national authority to take the lead for coordinating the implementation of the Action Plan. To do this they should set up national focal points.
44. The International Commission, and its Secretariat The International Commission, and Secretariat, is the body responsible for ensuring the implementation of the Danube River Protection Convention. It will be formally established when the Convention comes into force. Until then, an interim secretariat will be established in Vienna.
45. The Danube Programme Coordination Unit (PCU) At present the PCU reports on the Strategic Action Plan to the Task Force. It supports national ministries in implementing the Environmental Programme. When the Convention enters into force, responsibility for the Environmental Programme will be transferred to the International Commission and its secretariat for those topics in the framework of the DRPC.
46. Donors, International Financing Institutions and International Organisations International organisations, bilateral donors and the European Commission will play a significant role in the implementation of the Action Plan by providing funds and technical assistance.
47. National Plans for implementing the Action Plan Each Danube country should prepare a National Action Plan containing a detailed programme timed to meet the targets listed above. The National Action Plans need to indicate the role and responsibility of each sector, including NGOs, the public and the media, and describe the programme of implementation, financing and coordination.
Chapter 3 FINANCING PLAN IMPLEMENTATION
3.1 Resources needed
1. The types of actions proposed under the Plan include: policy and regulation, public awareness, institutional strengthening and capacity building, and public and private sector investment. The level of required financial resources will be stipulated within the context of the preparation of the individual National Action Plans. Outlined below are the types of expenditures and sources of funds available for implementation.
2. Policy and regulation, public awareness Funds will be needed for preparatory activities and development, including data collection and analysis, studies, pilot programmes and training. Laboratory and monitoring equipment and facilities will be needed. These actions are primarily the responsibility of public authorities at central, district, and local level.
3. Institutional strengthening and capacity building Funds will be needed to develop institutional strengthening and capacity building programmes. In some cases this will involve a major investment in upgrading training infrastructure.
4. Financing Possible projects include the rehabilitation and expansion of drinking water systems, and municipal waste water and solid waste management systems; the replacement of industrial process technology to minimise and eliminate waste; and the clean-up and restoration of polluted sites. These investments should be based on feasibility studies. Initially, funds are needed for planning and design. Planning and project preparation, particularly the feasibility study, form the basis for financing and implementation.
5. Funds are needed for civil works, and for equipment and facilities. In the CEE, funds for project preparation and construction come from national and local budgets and from state enterprises.
6. Financing needs fall into three categories:
* First, funds for technical activities including studies; demonstration and pilot projects; planning, including operational planning; training, institutional strengthening; data collection and monitoring; programme design and implementation; and project identification, preparation, and feasibility studies;
* Second, funds for capital investment in facilities to control pollution and improve water management;
* Third, funds for project implementation, including training and institutional strengthening and the recurrent costs of monitoring, operation, and maintenance.
7. Since the external and domestic financial resources are limited, it will be necessary to develop new innovative financial schemes. This could include, for instance, public-private partnership in financing such as concessions, BOT (build-operate-transfer) models, revolving funds, debt for environment swaps, etc. The capital market problems in CEE countries can be helped by establishing systems of guarantees for long-term investments. A combination of grants, guarantees and loans from external and domestic resources should be sought for mobilising financial resources for project financing.
3.2 Resources available
8. Long term financing needs will be met primarily from within the countries themselves. In the CEE countries, additional resources will be available from bilateral donors in the form of grants and concessional funding, loans or grants from national water or environmental funds, from loans provided by international and commercial financial institutions, from private sector investments, and from export credits and guarantees. Special sources of funding such as the GEF, debt for environment swaps, external support from foundations, and twinning agreements may also play an important role in the implementation of some aspects of the Action Plan.
9. The CEE countries are undergoing transformation of their economic and political systems. This has caused a considerable contraction in their economies, disruption in their production and trade, and budget constraints. As a result, ministries responsible for water and environment have been forced to reduce staff and curtail programmes. The availability of local financing will be a major concern until these conditions are alleviated. The rate at which the banking and financial sectors can be developed will also influence the capacity to mobilise local, long term financing.
10. Efforts to mobilise local resources for environmental protection through user fees or pollution charges are expected to yield results very gradually. In the short term, support from bilateral donor organisations will be needed, especially to support policy, institutional development and investment project preparation activities. Over the medium and long term, the need for assistance from bilateral donor organisations should decrease. Meanwhile, investment funds and access to export credits and guarantees will increase as these economies grow and become strong, as risks decline, and as creditworthiness (particularly of local governments) is enhanced.
Domestic Resources
11. Local financial resources should be used wherever possible to avoid pressure on the countries' balance of payments. Given present constraints on public sector expenditures, emphasis should be placed on meeting expenditure requirements from revenues generated at the project level (e.g. charges for municipal water services) before seeking national or international sources of funding. Local sources of funds include all water-related user fees (hydropower, fisheries, recreation, etc.), pollution fees and fines, budgetary allocations and non-budgetary incentives, domestic loans and local private sector investment. Domestic loans may not be a major factor in the short term because local capital markets and banks have not been developed to support environmental improvements and services. Local private investment is constrained by historical barriers to private ownership, a limited local banking and financial sector, and inexperience of potential investors with the types of activities proposed in the Action Plan.
12. User fees These are paid by consumers for water and waste water services. They should cover operation and maintenance costs as well as a share of investment and debt service. In practice, municipal finances in the CEE countries are severely strained and user fees are insufficient for even basic operation costs. Recent efforts in many cities to raise water tariffs are encouraging, but the resulting revenues are barely keeping pace with inflation.
13. Budgetary allocations and non-budgetary incentives These are derived from national, district and municipal authorities. They will remain an important source of investment funds. Reduced budgets in CEE countries are sufficient to pay only the costs of the central and regional administrations. Environmental sector activities often receive a low priority as compared to the need to pay wages in state-owned enterprises, to purchase energy supplies, or to ensure food production and distribution. The responsibility for raising local investment funds should be delegated to project level authorities, such as autonomous water supply and waste water utilities, or special area management organisations or authorities. For example, user fees paid by visitors to protected areas could be retained by the management agency.
14. Economic and financial incentives During the transition, critical investments can be greatly facilitated by the government through economic and financial incentives which do not involve a direct budget allocation but which may have a budgetary impact. These include income tax incentives, the conversion of sunk capital into equity and reinvestment of returns, exemptions from duties and special transaction taxes, and export licenses for tradable commodities. Such incentives will improve the financial condition of project authorities and increase the amount of net revenues available for investment and debt service. This will greatly expand the capacity of the utility or authority to mobilise resources for project financing and implementation.
15. Pollution fees and fines The primary purpose of pollution fees and fines is to reduce the environmentally harmful impacts of certain activities. In some countries, pollution fees and fines are used as a source of funds for environmental activities. These funds are normally shared between the central budget, national and district environmental authorities, and increasingly with municipal authorities. In some cases, they are allotted solely for environmental purposes while in others a portion of the funds is retained for general use in the central or municipal budget. They are usually administered through a specialised organisation linked to the Ministry of Environment. Decisions about allocations are approved by a board with members representing a variety of national and local interests. The key features of five such funds in central and eastern Europe are compared in Table 3.1. A convincing case has been made for the Danube countries to set up such funds for water or environmental protection activities. Management of the funds should be carefully controlled. The activities they will support should increase the transfer of management know-how and financing. This could include grants for lowering interest rates.
16. High levels of inflation in many CEE countries have caused problems in the collection of fees and in maintaining their real value. In many cases, industrial enterprises pay only a portion of the applicable fees and fines or none at all. They may have been granted exemptions because of their difficult financial situation. Some have not paid fees or fines for a number of years and are unable to pay their current assessments, let alone those due from past years. Despite these problems, the availability of funds from environmental fees and fines will prove to be an important source of funding for environmental improvement.
17. Pollution fees and fines should be used to provide local financial support for implementation of priority actions. The environmental funds and international financial institutions should consider co-financing some actions. Countries which do not have such funds should consider establishing them. National funds also need support and strengthening, particularly regarding project evaluation, financial management and accounting. As the economies in the CEE countries become more vigorous, the revenue base of environmental funds should increase and their role in the implementation of the Action Plan expand proportionately. Raising private funds to pay for environmental projects may be particularly difficult in some Danube countries because of the economic climate. Nevertheless, utilities should always be aware of the possibility of private funding. Utilities and responsible authorities should be aware that some activities, for example the restoration of wetlands, may attract private finance because of their conservation and recreation potential.
External Resources
18. Constraints on the availability of local financing and the need for foreign exchange make the use of external financial resources very important in the short and medium term. Their use must be well planned and properly coordinated. External resources are accompanied by conditions which should be carefully reviewed before a decision is taken. The principal sources of external financial resources are the European Union, governments and other bilateral donor organisations, international financial institutions, export credit agencies and commercial banks, and foreign companies. Available funds should be allocated according to the priorities of the Action Plan.
19. Grant and concessional assistance A grant is funds provided for specific purposes that do not have to be repaid, while concessional assistance is a loan for specific purposes that must be repaid, but at a net rate of interest that is below the market rate or the rate available from other sources. Concessional assistance may also be in the form of interest subsidies that reduce the cost of loans from other sources. Grant and concessional funding from the European Union (PHARE and TACIS Programmes) and bilateral donors has been an important source of support for environmental projects. These funding programmes have largely focused on the provision of technical assistance by means of studies, institutional strengthening and human resources development, and support for the acquisition and installation of monitoring systems and other equipment. In some cases, grant funding has also been made available for small-scale pilot and demonstration projects or support for joint-venture investments in environmental and energy conservation technologies. Improvements in water quality and the health of the basin ecosystems need not exclusively depend on large capital expenditure. Encouraging changes in peoples' behaviour and enlisting their practical support in local protection and rehabilitation projects may have more far-reaching effects on sustainable use of the Danube's resources in the long term. Local authorities and NGOs could be helped to plan and implement local, low-cost campaigns and action through grants from multilateral and bilateral sources.
20. Loans from international and other financial institutions Funds for capital investment may come from international or other financial institutions. The amounts available for environmental projects depend on their country and sectoral priorities and the recipient's borrowing capacity. The development banks, such as EIB, the World Bank and EBRD (for its public sector lending), are guided by the priorities and resource allocation decisions of governments. Direct environmental and related investment by international financial institutions depends on the priorities of the borrowing country, the level of borrowing or indebtedness that present and anticipated economic conditions can support, the balance in investment activities among priority sectors, the quality of the proposed investment, and the borrower or project sponsor. When assessing project financing proposals, these institutions focus in particular on the sponsor or borrower, and on their capacity and planning for repayment of the loan. The funds of the international financial institutions are lent at or near market terms, for frequently longer maturity and with longer grace periods than are available from other sources. Their use is contingent upon the willingness of the borrower to agree to service the loan and the willingness of the state to provide guarantees for repayment that some of these institutions require. In addition to the state guaranteed funding referred to above, EBRD is also able to lend to viable projects on a limited recourse basis. In general, loans from IFIs cover foreign currency costs only and local currency funds must be found from other sources. The possibility of blending loan and grant money in a single project should always be examined. Maximising the involvement of the private sector takes the burden off central government and effectively implements the polluter pays principle. This approach, working closely with the enterprise or company to develop the project from the bottom up, is currently being successfully developed in Slovenia, Hungary and Romania by EBRD.
21. Global Environment Facility (GEF) The GEF supports actions to reduce and limit emission of greenhouse gases which cause global warming; to preserve the earth's biological diversity and natural habitats; to control the pollution of international waters; and to protect the ozone layer. It is a cooperative venture among national governments, the World Bank, UNDP, and UNEP. It is beginning the operational phase in which it will be providing grants and low interest loans to eligible countries. The GEF also supports international environmental management and the transfer of environmentally benign technologies.
22. Funds provided through the GEF offer countries the opportunity to demonstrate how development projects can integrate environmental concerns. To qualify for funding, a project must relate to at least one of the four areas of concern. A project usually must not be economically viable without support from the facility. Most GEF funding will be for investment projects. Other types of projects include technical assistance, pre-investment and feasibility studies, scientific research, and training.
23. Foundation grants Grants from privately and publicly endowed foundations are a source of funding for activities consistent with the objectives and programmes of the foundation. Foundations frequently support the development of policies, human resources and innovative approaches to environmental management. Most foundations provide funds on a grant basis; however, they normally ask the recipient to provide some own finance, services in kind, or, in the case of conservation projects, land resources. Frequently, they seek to ensure that their funds are matched by those of other foundations, bilateral donors or international financial institutions.
24. The Barbara Gauntlett Foundation's support of the Danube Environmental Programme's pre-investment studies offer the most important example of the use of foundation grants. The European Nature Heritage Fund is supporting a variety of projects. Other foundations which have supported training and other activities in the Danube River basin include the World Wide Fund for Nature, the German Marshall Fund of the United States, the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, the Moriah Fund and the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.
25. Twinning arrangements Twinning arrangements have proven to be an important mechanism for the transfer of experience between parties with similar interests and concerns. They are central to the success of the Danube Environmental Programme. Within the region, there has been a long tradition of twinning arrangements between cities, which has intensified since 1989. These arrangements need not be limited to towns and cities. For example, they have been established by county governments, agricultural associations and nature conservation groups. One example is an industrial audit training programme in Poland which involves cooperation between engineering associations in Norway and Poland.
26. Information about financial mechanisms With so many mechanisms for financing projects, even without the possibility of national or international funding, there is support in some countries for some central point of advice on options for projects and descriptions of the role of organisations and representatives such as the UNDP Resident Representatives and National Sustainable Development Officers in UNDP field offices, World Bank and EBRD local representatives, the EU's PHARE Programme Implementation (or Management) Units (PIUs, PMUs) and the Programme Coordination Unit. While the idea seems attractive, meeting the need will be particularly challenging because the circumstances of the projects are so variable.
3.3 Project preparation
27. Project preparation is the first step on the critical path. The process of implementing investments under the Action Plan will be carried out through National Action Plans that set out clear national, regional and local priorities, and through projects that implement the national plans. National Action Plans or tributary river basin plans with clear priorities and projects are necessary before resources can be obtained from bilateral donors, commercial banks, and international financial institutions. The Project Preparation Facility, established under the Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe and whose secretariat is at EBRD, provides one mechanism which can assist in the project cycle where international funding is desirable.
28. The funding process will take longer where feasibility studies have not been carried out or have not been coordinated closely with potential financing organisations. The `hot spots' described in Table 2.2, for example, include a number of technically straightforward projects to construct waste water treatment plants. However, these will generally involve complex, multi-year programmes of investment and institutional restructuring.
29. If the criteria of affordability and financial viability are applied more rigorously than in the past, investments in treatment plants will have to be stretched out over a longer period of time. Other complex issues affect the development, financing and implementation of environmental improvements in industry, livestock enterprises, and the management of wetlands.
30. Project visibility The central issue of environmental project preparation is the search for a feasible, affordable project, for which one can demonstrate a reliable and secure cash flow, sufficient for at least the project recurrent costs, and possibly a portion of the debt service needs over time. Although technically and economically feasible, environmental projects are usually not financially viable, as they do not have sufficient revenue or cash flow to provide for debt service coverage and normal recurrent costs. In the long term, revenues based on user fees and tariffs are expected to be the primary source of investment funds.
31. Identification of the borrower/implementer and assessment of the institutional framework Every project must have an entity or sponsor who is responsible for executing and financing it. This sponsor must be clearly defined at the outset and will be expected to raise the necessary funds for the project. The borrower and the implementer are the focus of the risk of the project. They are responsible for implementing the project from beginning to end. In many cases they are also responsible for the operation and maintenance of completed project and infrastructure.
32. Feasibility studies Project feasibility studies should cover the need for the project, the selection of appropriate technology, and the costs and procedures for implementation. They should demonstrate that the project is a least-cost solution, is economically justified, and is institutionally and financially feasible. Two problems have arisen. First, there is the need for agreement on what constitutes an adequate feasibility study. This lack has caused problems among all groups involved in the Danube Environmental Programme. Second, most project sponsors lack the capacity to carry out the required studies. The problem is primarily their lack of experience with western concepts and approaches. Significant problems may arise if they fail to examine alternative or complementary approaches to the proposed project. For example, studies have evaluated a proposed waste water treatment plant without an analysis of actions which could be taken to reduce waste water flows and to reduce the size of the plant; or without analysis of the impact of industrial pre-treatment of waste water on the cost of the project, its operation, or sludge management.
3.4 Short term actions for financing implementation
33. The previous paragraphs show in general terms which resources are needed, the possible types of domestic and international financing instruments and resources, and an overview of the financing possibilities of potential donors.
34. As mentioned in para. 8, long term financing will have to be met primarily from within the countries themselves.
35. Although no global estimates of the costs of the actions proposed in this Action Plan can be provided, it is clear that there is a significant resource gap between the proposed actions and available funding. To address this, the following actions should be taken:
* Develop a financing plan (domestic and international) in order to identify what funds are available and what funds are needed to meet the most urgent and short term priorities
* Initiate internal discussions in governments involving the Ministry of Finance and all relevant ministries to develop a financial plan for dealing with the most urgent and short term priorities
* Earmark funds for transferring training and know-how to the riparian governments on raising funds for environmental initiatives
* Initiate mechanisms which can make loans for environmental improvements more realistic, attractive and affordable for riparian countries
* Provide a list of initiatives which have resulted from the pre-investment studies of projects which are being considered for development and/or funding by the IFIs.
36. A timely response to these activities would be encouraged, promoted and coordinated within the framework of both the DRPC and the Environmental Programme for the Danube River Basin.
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PART II
Chapter 4 THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE DANUBE RIVER BASIN
4.1 Basic characteristics of the Danube River basin
1. The Danube river has a total length of 2 857 km and a drainage area of about 817 000 sq. km. Its character varies from mountain stream to lowland river. At the entrance of the Danube delta the mean flow of the river is about 6 550 m3/s, the extreme values ranging from 15 540 m3/s for peak discharges to 1 610 m3/s for low flow. The natural flow regime is influenced by different hydraulic structures and intensive water use in the basin. The seasonal pattern of mean monthly discharges is given in Figure 4.1 and the contribution from the tributaries is given in Figure 4.2.
Table 4.1
Characteristics of the three main regions of the Danube catchment
Gauging station Stream location Catchment areaMean discharge
km sq. kmm3/s
Upper BasinBratislava1 869131 338 2 020
Middle Basin Orsova 955 576 232 5 699
Lower BasinCeatal Ismail 72 807 000 6 550
2. About one-third of the Danube River basin is mountainous, while the remaining two thirds consist of hills and plains. The mean altitude of the river basin is only 475 m, but the maximum difference in height between the lowland and alpine peaks is over 3 000 m.
3. The Danube River basin can be divided into four parts: the upper region, the middle region, the lower region and the Danube delta. The Upper Region extends from the source tributaries to Bratislava. After the confluence of the rivers Brigach and Breg, the river is called the Danube (Donau in German). Downstream from this point the river follows the fault gap through the German Alb and its well-shaped valley. Major tributaries from the south, including the rivers Iller, Lech, Isar, Inn, Salzach, Traun and Enns, drain the alpine sub-basins and augment the discharge in the Danube substantially. For example, the River Inn has a larger mean annual discharge than the Danube itself at the confluence. Originally these mountain tributaries transported large amounts of sediments, but sediment load is now greatly reduced because of the construction of hydraulic works. Major tributaries from the north are the rivers Naab, Kamp and Morava. The Morava is the most important and drains the Czech part of the Danube River basin and smaller areas of Slovakia and Austria.
Figure 4.1
Seasonal pattern of mean monthly discharges
Figure 4.2
Contribution of flow from the Danube River tributaries
4. The Middle Region is the largest of the three regions, extending from the confluence with the River Morava at Bratislava to the Iron Gate dams. Here the Danube enters a flatland region. The sediment-carrying capacity of the river is reduced and gravel and coarse material have been deposited. At times the river separates into branches forming several islands. The major tributaries in the region are from the left; the rivers Vah and Hron in Slovakia and Tisza (the largest tributary in the Danube River basin), and from the right, the rivers Leitha, Raab, Drava, Sava and Moldova Veche. Down to the confluence with the river Drava the mean run-off rate has increased to about 5 700 m3/s.
5. At Moldova Veche (km 1 048), the 117 km long gorge section begins between the Carpathians and Stará Planina (the Balkan Mountains). This gorge has been filled by large reservoirs for hydropower and navigation.
6. The Lower Region is formed by the Romanian-Bulgarian lowland and its surrounding upland plateaus and mountains. From the mouth of the River Timok to Silistra (km 374) the Danube forms the Romanian-Bulgarian border, flowing mostly east. The Danube flows as a wide (800 m), slow-moving river, with extensive, well developed alluvial plains especially on the left bank (Romanian side). The inundated area during floods can reach a width of up to 10 km. The right bank (Bulgarian side) is a narrow riverine plain flanked by a steep bank. Much of the sediment load of the Danube is deposited behind the Iron Gate Dams, resulting in active riverbank erosion in this floodplain.
7. Few of the Danube tributaries in the lower region influence the hydrology of the Danube. Although many of them have large catchment areas, their flow is small in comparison to that of the main river. The last two large left-bank tributaries are the Siret and Prut rivers. Several lakes in the lower Prut Valley are linked hydrologically to the Danube River.
8. The Danube Delta covers an area of about 600 000 ha. It was created by the division of the river into three main branches, forming a triangle with about 70 km long sides. Almost two-thirds of the delta area is seasonally submerged due to the low absolute altitude. The whole of the Romanian part of the delta was declared a Biosphere Reserve in September 1990 and registered under the Ramsar Convention. Over half of its area is listed under the World Heritage Convention. Some 15 000 ha (about 10%) of the Ukrainian part of the Delta is protected, the rest being used for agriculture. The population in the Romanian part of the delta is only about 15 000, while the Ukrainian part has about 68 000 inhabitants.
Box 4.1 The Danube delta
The Danube delta in Romania, and over 150 000 ha in Ukraine, consists of rivers, lakes, reed swamps, meadows, sand dunes and forests. It is a rich economic resource of fish, timber and reed and is home to about 80 000 people. It is important as a national tourist centre and has a considerable potential for ecotourism.
As a centre of wetland biodiversity, the Danube delta ranks among the top sites in Europe. Up to 75 different species of fish can be found in the delta and several globally threatened bird species, including the red-breasted goose, the Dalmatian pelican and the pygmy cormorant, either breed in the delta or use the delta as a winter quarter.
The major impacts on the delta ecosystems result from the changes both in upstream conditions, such as the manipulation of water discharge and pollution, and from changes in the delta itself. The most significant activities in recent decades have been the creation of a canal network in the delta to improve access and the circulation of water through the delta, and the reduction of the wetland area by the construction of agricultural polders and fishponds. As a result, biodiversity has been reduced and the fundamentally important natural water and sediment transport system has been altered, diminishing the ability of the delta to retain nutrients. The new regime allows much of the nutrient-containing silt to pass directly through the main canals rather than being distributed into the wetlands and reed beds.
The table below shows the retention capacity of the Danube delta in 1991 (Romanian report to the Danube Integrated Environmental Study). The nutrient retention capacity of the straightened Danube arms Chilia and Sulina is less than the more meandering St. Gheorghe arm. But, construction works are straightening out the St. Gheorghe arm, as well. The overall retention of the Danube delta is 14.4% for nitrogen and 8.2% for phosphorus.
A GEF project will include the rehabilitation of wetland areas for the purpose of restructuring the biodiversity and increasing the nutrient filtering capacity of the delta. The results will be closely monitored and the pilot project should collect valuable information that can be used in other attempts to reconstruct the ecological functions of wetlands both in the delta and upstream in the Danube basin.
Nutrients in the Danube arm
Nitrogen 1 000 tonnes Phosphorus 1 000 tonnes
Input Output Retention Input Output Retention
Chilia 302 297.1 4.9 26.5 26.2 0.3
St. Gheorghe 90.4 61.8 28.6 8.0 5.9 2.1
Sulina 58.6 27.1 31.5 5.2 4.3 0.9
Total 451 386 65 39.7 36.4 3.3
Source: Danube Integrated Environment Study, Phase 2 Report, Haskoning; Romanian Country Report 1993
4.2 Climate
9. The western regions of the upper Danube River basin are influenced by the Atlantic climate while the eastern regions have a continental climate. In particular the Drava and Sava River basins are influenced by the Mediterranean climate. The central Danube lowland, e.g. Hungary, has a continental climate with hot summers and moderately cold winters, while the lower Danube flatland has hot summers and cold winters with relatively low precipitation.
10. The annual precipitation in the high Alpine regions averages about 2 000 mm per year. It falls to about 700 mm/yr in the Danube valley. The rainfall pattern in the Carpathians is similar. In the plains of the lower Danube, precipitation is only 500-600 mm/yr, falling to less than 400 mm/yr in the delta. In some years there is no precipitation over the summer period. The duration of snow cover and its thickness increases with altitude. In the high altitudes of the Alps and Carpathians, 50-70 days/yr of snowfall are recorded, reaching even 180 days/yr for the highest mountain ranges. The plains only have 1-3 days/yr of snowfall. The shortest duration of snow cover (9-12 days/yr) is on the Black Sea coast. The snow cover lasts for only 20-30 days/yr in the plains of the middle basin and 40-60 days/yr in the upper basin.
11. Evaporation is important for the water balance in the catchments. In lower regions the mean annual evaporation varies between 450 mm and 650 mm. In the highest altitudes values of about 100 mm occur locally.
4.3 Surface water quality
12. No basin-wide characterisation of the water quality of Danube and its tributaries is available, due to the different classification systems used in the countries. In particular in the lower parts of the basin, the water quality of the main stream Danube is better than in the tributaries. During low flow periods, the tributaries have major problems. Water quality problems are presented in detail in chapter 5.
Box 4.2 The BOD situation in the Danube River and some of its tributaries
The discharge of organic matter creates major problems in many of the Danube tributaries. Organic matter exhibiting BOD is a source of food for microorganisms, thereby causing microbial heterotrophic growth and oxygen uptake. This oxygen uptake lowers the dissolved oxygen concentration under constant conditions - even more so if reaeration is low. Both factors below a certain level will have negative impacts on fish reproduction and general biodiversity. This can make the water unfit for uses like water supply and recreation. These problems have resulted in the construction of biological waste water treatment plants in many of the cities along the tributaries.
On the main Danube River, the organic material load does not create major problems. The dilution and self-purification capacity of the Danube is high and the river is able to handle the organic material from untreated sewage from the major cities along the river and the high BOD load from some of the tributary rivers, without serious decrease of the oxygen concentration in the river water. The data provided from the monitoring under the Bucharest Convention shows in fact an improvement on BOD level in the lower reaches compared to the upper part of the river.
BOD concentration in some of the tributaries and the Danube in the confluence with the tributaries
4.4 Groundwater resources
13. Pollution of groundwater is a problem faced by all the Danube countries. Downstream riparian countries, where many million people use hand-dug wells which tap the surface aquifers, are particularly at risk of serious health problems because of poor groundwater quality. In the Arges catchment alone, one million Romanians are dependent on contaminated shallow groundwater for their drinking water. Contaminated shallow groundwater is also putting at risk the quality of deeper groundwaters. Legal limits for nitrate and phosphate in groundwater are frequently exceeded in the Danube basin, as are limits for chloride, sulphate, ammonia and phenol. Special problem areas include the Prut catchment in Moldova and the Hornad, Nitra, Hron and Ipel subcatchments in Slovakia. The protection of karstic groundwater is difficult since the watershed boundaries generally do not correspond to topographic boundaries, making it difficult to define the area that needs to be protected.
4.5 Air quality problems
14. The Environmental Action Programme for Central and Eastern Europe identifies air pollution as the potential most serious short to medium term environmental problem for human health in the region. Air pollution in the downstream countries is caused by the burning of low-grade coal for industry and for domestic heating. Most of the emissions of organic micropollutants and heavy metals in the downstream countries are linked to specific industrial enterprises - most of them now with reduced production and consequently reduced emissions. Air pollution from traffic is relatively more serious in the upstream countries.
15. Air pollution also is a cause of acid precipitation, which harms both forest and water ecosystems. Most of the countries participating in the Danube Programme have reported forest damage caused by acid precipitation from both local and transboundary air pollution. Among the constituents of acid precipitation are NOx and NH3-, which also add to the total nitrogen load of the Danube River basin. The contribution of air transported nitrogen to the overall nutrient load has not been calculated, but studies from near-by regions indicate that it is substantial.
4.6 Soil quality
16. The most important point sources of soil contamination include industrial and municipal waste dumps and landfill sites, industrial plants, railway yards, military bases, and sites of subsurface oil piping and storage. The diffuse sources of soil pollution are mainly agriculture and atmospheric deposition, which contribute nutrients, metals and pesticides. Cadmium, lead, copper and zinc are threatening the quality of topsoil through atmospheric deposition and the use of low quality fertilisers. Fertilisers with a high cadmium content have been extensively used in a number of countries, in some cases resulting in a soil less suited for agricultural production.
17. Soil erosion is a serious problem in a large part of the basin, threatening agricultural production in a number of areas. Especially in parts of Romania, Ukraine and Moldova, high applications rates of phosphorus are required to compensate for soil erosion on agricultural fields.
18. Riverbed erosion is a natural phenomenon and an essential part of natural riverine processes. However, it has increased following canalisation and dam/weir construction which reduced the balancing sedimentation processes downstream. Another factor contributing to erosion is the excavation of sand and gravel.
4.7 Wetland ecosystems
19. Wetlands provide a number of services to the economy and to river ecosystems. They play a crucial role in sustaining biodiversity in the basin. Their diverse habitats support a wide variety of species. Not only do wetlands act as natural filters for nutrients and toxic substances, they also provide sediment and erosion control, flood protection, and maintenance of surface and groundwater resources. They contribute to climate stability and support fisheries, grazing, agriculture, recreation, scientific research and education. Many wetlands, especially on the floodplain, are very fertile, but in their natural state they are too damp for cultivation of standard crops. This fertility has been exploited by drainage or polders for agriculture.
20. Wetland habitats in the Danube River basin have been drastically altered over many centuries but the process has accelerated over the last 50 years. In that period, the main cause of wetland destruction seems to have been the extension and intensification of agriculture. This has involved drainage and irrigation, which are partly responsible for the drop in water levels and the removal of wetland and floodplain forest. Industrial development and pollution, mining, transport and energy production also play a part in the destruction or degradation of wetlands in the region. Forests with wet meadows and fishponds (artificial, but over the years supporting diverse fauna and flora) appear to have been the most severely affected wetland habitats. The few remaining natural forests are of outstanding importance and careful management is vital.
21. Nonetheless, the Danube basin's natural and semi-natural wetland ecosystems and their species populations have pan-European and in some cases world importance. Wetlands that have gained special international recognition include:
* The Danube delta in Romania and Ukraine
* Those along the Drava and Sava rivers in Croatia. These ecosystems include floodplains, flooded forests, reed-patch forests, marshes, lakes, reservoirs and fishponds. The most important sites are Kopacki Rit, Lonjsko Polje and Plitvice lakes
* Forests along the Danube downstream from Vienna in Austria
* Regental Aue and floodplain forests at the confluence of the Isar and the Danube rivers in Germany.
22. The karstic underground waterways are unique ecosystems which are found in many places in the basin and which support unique aquatic and terrestrial fauna. Many of the species are endemic and in danger of extinction, since the karstic systems are very sensitive to pollution. Slovenia is the country most rich in karstic features.
4.8 Biodiversity
23. Because the Danube River basin has a broad variety of landscapes, it is outstandingly rich in biodiversity. It is a valuable pool of genetic resources. There are about 100 fish species, compared to about 227 in Europe as a whole (1967 figures). About 180 bird species are still found in the basin. About 2 000 species of higher plants are reported in the river corridor. The variety of species increases from the sources of the river to the delta. Although many habitats are protected and several are approved by the Ramsar Convention, many species are endangered or are already threatened, with extinction. About 40 fish species are threatened, as are some bird species.
4.9 Hydraulic works
24. Since 1950, hundreds of artificial lakes have been constructed on the Danube and its tributaries to provide storage and release of water for purposes, such as flood control, hydropower, navigation, irrigation, and domestic and industrial water supply.
25. The construction of dikes and reservoirs has greatly decreased floodplain zones with important loss or modification of habitats. One of the most important impacts is isolation of the larger parts of the floodplains by dikes creating `fossil' floodplains which are no longer in contact with the surface waters of the river. Another impact of the reservoirs is in the modification of the Danube's hydrological and sediment regimes. The major impact is the loss of self-purification capacity and hence of biodiversity and habitat diversity. Canalisation and hydraulic engineering works have modified the morphological pattern of many river courses.
4.10 Navigation
26. The Danube countries cooperate on navigation under several agreements dating back to 1856. The Danube, especially the middle and lower reaches, has been an important natural waterway for centuries. The dream of constructing a navigable waterway connecting the rivers Main and the Danube, and thus the North Sea and the Black Sea, dates back to ancient times. This was realised after the opening of the Rhine-Main-Danube canal on 25 September 1992. In 1984, a 64 km Danube-Black Sea canal between Cernavoda and Constanza, Romania, was completed to shorten the route by 370 km. The canal is also intended to provide water for irrigation in Dobrogea.
Chapter 5 PROBLEMS AND their causes
5.1 Introduction
1. The four goals of the Strategic Action Plan were described in Part I, chapter 2. The first two goals relate to the water quality and quantity problems in the basin: `Maintain and improve the availability and quality of waters in the Danube River basin', and `Reduce the negative impact of activities in the Danube River basin on the riverine ecosystem and the Black Sea'. This chapter reviews the causes of the most important water quality and quantity issues and problems associated with these goals, and discusses some important institutional issues.
5.2 The goal: `Maintain and improve the availability and quality of waters in the Danube River basin'
2. The aim is to ensure that the surface and groundwaters of the Danube River basin are managed in a manner that will sustain their use in a wide range of socially and economically important activities. It should provide a framework for the sustainable and equitable management of water quantity through strategies that support the maintainance and improvement of the availability and quality of surface water and groundwater for drinking water, fisheries, industry, irrigation, recreation, power production, and navigation.
3. The following discussion focuses on the main problems that affect water quality use:
* high load of nutrients and eutrophication
* contamination with hazardous substances, including oils * microbiological contamination
* contamination with substances causing heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion
* competition for available water.
4. The relationship between these problems and the main water users is shown in chapter 1. The nature and extent of each of the problems and the main causes of the problems are discussed in more detail below.
Table 5.1
Relations between key water management problems and the primary water uses in the Danube River basin
Water Uses Drinking FisheriesIndustryIrrigation Recreation
Water Supply
Problem
1. Nutrient load Increased Loss ofIncreasedDegradation
andcost of sensitivecost ofof
eutrophication treatment;speciestreatmentenvironmental
Factor: nitrogen consu-merandquality and
and phosphorus acceptance reductionloss of
Sources: problems in someopportunities
municipal wasteNitrateuses, e.g. and benefits
water, industry, contaminationcooling
agricultureof groundwater
2. Hazardous The presence of these pollutants in significant concentrations
substances,would seriously affect drinking water, fisheries, and the
including oils riverine ecosystems. However, present data and monitoring systems
Sources: are inadequate to establish present levels in most areas of the
industry,basin and to determine the overall priority for dealing with
agriculture, these pollutants. At the local level, serious problems may
transportalready exist in some tributary river basins. Since metal and
some micro-pollutants are readily adsorbed onto fine sediments,
quantities of these pollutants may be stored in the sediments
trapped by the numerous hydraulic structures in the Danube basin
3. RendersIncreases WaterLoss of
Microbiologicalsurface andcost of unfit foropportunity,
pollutiongroundwatertreatment certainincluding
Factor:unfit forin some cropselimination
bacteria,water supply types of of some uses
viruses, etc.or increases processes, such as
Sources: cost ofparticularly bathing and
municipal wastetreatmentfood other
water,processing contact
livestock, lackactivities
of adequate
sanitation
4. Heterotrophic Surface water Severe Increased Modern Loss of
growth and unfit for loss ofcost of irrigation opportunity
oxygen depletion water supplyhabitatwater equipmentand economic
Factor: organicReduced when O2treatment may clog benefits
matter, ammoniagroundwater level
Sources: infiltrationdrops
municipal wasteand lower below
water, industry, quality minimum
livestockrequired
Fish loss
from toxic
levels of
ammonia
5. Competition Reduced orLoss ofReduced orReducedLoss of
for availableintermittenthabitat; intermittantwateropportunity
water Factor:suppliesdisruptedwater supply and economic
water planning,migrationsupplyduring the benefits
allocation, andandcritical
operationspawning growth
Sources: patterns period
sectoral
authorities
5.2.1 High load of nutrients and eutrophication affecting water uses
The problem
5. The increased discharge of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) has a negative impact on water quality, both directly by raising the level of nitrates in groundwater and indirectly by causing eutrophication of surface waters, including in the Black Sea.
6. Intensive eutrophication is most likely to create problems in slow-flowing river reaches, reservoirs and lakes. It can lead to extreme algae growth and oxygen deficit in stagnant water. It will normally not be a problem in running water, where the level of dissolved oxygen is higher. Under eutrophic conditions fish production capacity is reduced - in particular for the most valuable fish species - and the water is unsuitable for most kinds of recreation. This situation exists in some of the wetlands along the Danube and in some of the lakes and reservoirs on the tributaries. High concentrations of algae can also occur in some drinking water supply reservoirs and lead to problems of clogging of intakes for water supply and irrigation, interference with treatment processes, and consumer complaints about taste, odour or turbidity. However, these are mainly local, summer season problems.
7. Serious health concern is caused by high levels of nitrate in drinking water which can lead to methaemoglobinemia (reduced oxygen carrying capacity of blood), especially in infants. Critically high levels of nitrate are found in some groundwater sources and nitrate is extremely costly to remove. High levels of nitrate in groundwater aquifers are reported in several parts of the basin, particularly in the intensively cultivated areas of Hungary, Romania and Slovakia. Elevated nitrate concentrations are also reported in certain other countries of the basin. The Danube River itself still has a moderate nitrate level, well below the EU standard for water extraction for drinking water purposes, and is still considered a `safe' raw water source with respect to nitrate. However, the nitrate level in the Danube has increased four to five times in the last 30 years. If this is allowed to continue, the region will face a health problem of highest priority (Box 5.1).
Box 5.1 Bank-filtered water resources
High capacity aquifers are often formed in the alluvial zones of gravel and sand deposits along rivers. The yield of bank-filtered wells depends on the water level in the river, water temperature and on the fraction's composition of sediment. These factors and the well's distance from the main river (normally 50-150 metres) determines the pollutant removal efficiency during the bank-filtration process. It is typical for the Danube basin's bank-filtered aquifers, that at top is a thin (1-5 m) silt-loess layer. Beneath is a 5-45 m thick gravely-sandy or coarse sandy layer drained by the main river. Filtered water moves horizontally from the river to the wells, with a high yield (more than 1 000 m3/day/km).
Threats to bank-filtered water quality
Although the pollutant removal capacity of the filtering process is sufficient for most components, there are serious concerns about water quality:
* Pollution removal capacity of the filtering layers decreasing due to the accumulation of contaminants in the sand and gravel layer
* Reduced concentrations of suspended sediment in the river, leading to the erosion of the river bed and consequently lowered water levels and destruction of filtering layers
* Increasing contamination of upland groundwater aquifers that provides part of the water transport to the wells. There are reports of bank-filtered wells being polluted by nitrate, micro-pollutants and, in some cases, heavy metals from upland groundwater sources
* Anaerobic processes in the lower layers, due to stagnant water in reservoirs and pollution of the upper layers of bottom sediment with organic material
* Pollution accumulation in the sediments of reservoirs' backwaters
* Hazardous accidental spills which damage sediment quality.
Use of bank-filtered water
Many water works along the Danube and the tributaries use bank-filtered water. The city of Linz obtains its drinking water from bank-filtered water. The Nussdorf waterworks provided about 15% (150 000 m3/day) of Vienna's water demand from bank wells until 1990. Due to quality objections recently it is now maintained as a reserve capacity. The water supply of Bratislava is dependent on bank-filtered water (160 000 m3/day). The Budapest region has access to bank-filtered water resources of good quality and reliable capacity from the 140 km river reach between the upper end of Szentendre Island and the lower end of Csepel. This is Europe's largest bank-filtered water abstraction scheme. The bank-filtered water resources along the Hungarian Danube stretch are over 5.5 million m3/day. The Croatian capital of Zagreb obtains potable water of excellent quality from the bank-filtered aquifers along the Sava river. About 200 000 m3/day of bank-filtered water is used for the water supply in Slovenia. In Romania, the water supply for Craiova, Galati, along the Jiul river and some of other tributaries is based on bank-filtered aquifers.
The causes
8. The agriculture sector contributes an average of 50% of the total load of nitrogen and phosphorus to the Danube. Over-application or improper application of fertilisers in the past has caused excess nitrogen and phosphorus to be transported into nearby waterways and groundwater. The problem is caused by the amount of fertiliser applied, soil conditions and rainfall (and snow melting where manure has been spread on fields in winter) and soil erosion. The average rate of fertiliser application per unit of area has always been lower in the Danube countries than in western Europe. Fertilisers have been intensively used on the highly cultivated alluvial plains. These areas are also those which are most dependent on groundwater for drinking water. Fertilisers are also often stored in bulk in the open, resulting in considerable loss. The last two to three years have been atypical, with a dramatic drop in fertiliser use in some countries due to the economic transition and the structural changes in the agriculture sector. In Hungary the total use of mineral fertiliser dropped from 268 kg (N+P+K)/ha/year in 1988 to 37 kg/ha/year in 1991. One major source of nutrients is animal feedlots, particularly in Romania. The contribution of nutrients from the Romanian feedlots is roughly equivalent to the discharges from a human population of 25 million.
9. The population contributes about one quarter of the nitrogen and phosphorus load to the Danube. Municipal sewage, storm water run-off and run-off and seepage from unsewered areas are also major contributors. Downstream of Austria, the lack of waste water treatment on the main Danube and the substandard technical condition of the existing treatment plants mean that very little nitrogen and phosphorus are removed. Adding nutrient removal will be very costly for the utilities. Nitrogen removal is particularly expensive and complicated.
10. Industry, atmospheric deposition, etc. cause about 20-30% of the problem of nitrogen and phosphorus in the Danube. Old-fashioned fertiliser factories are major dischargers of nitrogen and their outdoor piles and lagoons of phosphor-gypsum are a special case of pollution of nutrients. Even if production on these sites is reduced or stopped, the gypsum stores will continue to be serious pollution sources in the future.
5.2.2 Contamination with hazardous substances affecting water uses
The problem
11. The lack of data and reliable studies makes it difficult to assess the problems of contamination of water bodies and their sediments and health risks. There are many general statements on these issues, but little verified information. Further investigation is needed to clarify the severity and risk at sites and of regional and transboundary problems. Accidental spills of toxic substances pose a special threat to downstream users. The extent of this problem is unknown, however, because of the lack of continuous monitoring of micro-pollutants. The potentially high health risks of hazardous substances justify the high priority given to assessing present and likely future health and ecological risks.
12. Hazardous substances of particular concern are pesticides, ammonia, other organic micro-pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and metals. The potential health and economic risks of these pollutants are high. The limited available data on contamination levels in Danube River water and sediments indicate that this is not a serious problem. There are, however, serious concerns about the pollutants in sediments trapped in reservoirs and in reaches downstream of industrial concentrations. A survey in 1991 of 55 sites revealed that in 23 of these, sediment was found that would have been treated as hazardous waste according to Dutch regulations. Four sites had concentrations exceeding the Canadian classification of `severe effect' (Box 5.2). The density of particularly contaminated sites and the number of chemicals found in high concentration at each site are higher in the lower region of the Danube than in the upper reaches. Data on the tributaries are very limited. The pre-investment studies carried out under the Danube Programme have, however, identified a number of areas where there are severe problems with heavy metal contamination of water sources - both surface and groundwater, or sites where such problems are very likely to be present. Examples include Krompachy at Hornad River in Slovakia and the uranium mines at Rozinka in the Morava basin in the Czech Republic.
Box 5.2 Pollution of the Danube main stream by hazardous substances
A single snapshot of pollution of sediments with heavy metals and organic micro-pollutants along the mainstream Danube is provided by the Report on a joint assessment of pollution in the Danube river.*
Sampling was taken at undisturbed sites where there is a net deposition of fine sediments. All sites were either related to Bucharest Declaration sites, potential `hot spots' (associated with cities, big industrial complexes, dams or nuclear power plants) or confluences of Danube tributaries with the main river. `Hot spots' could be assigned by applying the Rotterdam harbour criteria for permitting dumping of solid waste in the North Sea and the Ottawa Great Lakes criteria for `severe effects levels'.
The study confirms that the Danube is not chronically polluted in its entirety, although a number of `hot spot' pollution sites can be identified. Out of the total amount of sampling sites, each pollutant could only be attributed to a small percentage of `hot spot' sites according to either criterion. Most of the pollution sites are found in the lower reaches of the river. However, there are also some `hot spot' pollution sites along the upper reaches of the Danube main river. Nickel is found at the greatest number of `hot spots' - nine are distributed over the total length of the main stream. The most extreme `hot spots' involved mercury, where two out of the total of three `hot spots' are assigned a severe effect level.
* Equipe Cousteau: 1991, research carried out by the Marine Environmental Laboratory of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA-MEL) and VITUKI Institute for Water Pollution Control.
13. Chronic contamination of water sources by hazardous substances will make the water unfit for drinking unless advanced and very expensive treatment technology is applied. It might also have serious effects on fish production and its suitability for human consumption. Hazardous substances can, in extreme situations, also make the water unfit for irrigation and recreation.
14. Oil pollution is caused by many continuous leakages and routine discharges into the river in the middle and lower reaches. The monitoring data indicate a relatively high and constant pollution level, in particular in the lower reaches. In addition, accidental spills of oil seem to be happening frequently. Monitoring stations in Budapest report almost daily incidents of minor oil spills into the Danube. Larger spills have also been reported in the basin.
15. Radiation is a problem of special public concern both for reasons of health and of environment. Several nuclear power plants in the basin use significant amounts of water for cooling. Low-level radiation is emitted under normal operation, but serious situations might develop in case of irregularities. Some water related radiation `hot spots' have been identified at existing or abandoned uranium mines. There are, however, few indications that radiation is causing major problems in the basin.
16. To halt or to reverse hazardous pollution problems is a long term process. Substances in sediments and biological material can be released and continue to pollute water bodies in the basin for many years after the primary source of pollution is shut down.
The causes
17. Industry and mining are responsible of most of the direct and indirect discharges of hazardous substances into the Danube basin. Depending on the type of industry, the effluent might contain heavy metals (smelting, electroplating, chlorine production, tanneries, metal processing, etc.), organic micro-pollutants (pulp and paper, chemical, pharmaceuticals, etc.) or oil products and solvents (machine production, oil refineries, etc.). Mining activities result in drainage water from the mines, run-off from tailings and from process water containing metals and sometimes organic solvents. Some data are available on loading of pollutants from individual enterprises, but in most cases data are lacking or are unreliable. Sewage is a main source of ammonia.
18. Transport in many reaches appears to be an important source of continuous oil pollution and the main source of lead into the Danube and its larger tributaries. Lead is primarily generated from car traffic but its contribution has not been calculated. Shipping on the Danube is considered to be a chronic source of oil pollution, in particular through the illegal dumping of used oil and tank washing water. However, no quantitative data are available. The transport and storage of oil in old and poorly maintained pipelines and tanks have also created both continuous and accidental spills of petroleum products into rivers and groundwater. The most recent accident was at an oil pipeline in Ukraine, which contaminated the River Bodrog (via the tributary Uh) and threatened water supplies in Ukraine, Slovakia and Hungary.
19. Diffuse discharges from agriculture are important sources of micro-pollutants. About 300-500 different active pesticide agents have been used in the basin. Germany and Austria monitor priority substances, but the downstream countries have no systematic monitoring of pesticides in water, sediments or biological materials. Even before the economic recession, the downstream countries used less pesticides per unit of land area than commonly in western Europe. However, the application of the pesticides was uneven and sometimes included chemicals that had been banned in the west. Low quality phosphate fertiliser with a high content of cadmium has been extensively used in the basin and has contributed to the contamination of soil and water.
5.2.3 Microbiological contamination affecting water uses
The problem
20. Microbiological contamination by pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and protozoa is an important water quality problem in the region. Systematic and comprehensive data for microbiological parameters in the water sources of the basin are not available. However, it is generally agreed that the Danube and its tributaries are significantly polluted by faecal bacteria and viruses. (Box 5.4) In the Danube itself, bacterial contamination has been registered even in Germany and Austria. Incidents of microbiological contamination seem to be more prominent downstream, but there does not seem to be any indication of a general deterioration of water quality by pathogens as the river flows to the delta. The Danube itself should not be used as a drinking water source without intensive mechanical and chemical treatment including desinfection, and bathing in the river should be discouraged. In the basin as a whole, the most important health hazard seems to be connected to microbiological contamination of shallow aquifers and rural wells.
21. Current health statistics are believed to reveal only a limited number of the actual incidents of water-borne diseases. Anecdotal information, however, suggests that there are a number of epidemics and that thousands of people in the basin suffer each year from water-borne diseases. Cases of dysentery, hepatitis A, rotavirus and cholera have been reported. The epidemics are caused by contamination of local water bodies and river reaches used for drinking water, bathing, etc. It is reported that the Danube raw water in Romania contains a level of microbiological agents that makes it unfit for the irrigation of crops produced for direct human consumption.
22. Microbiological contamination is normally a local problem, since most pathogens have a limited survival time in water. Many pathogenic organisms are readily destroyed in rivers with high levels of oxygen, but some, in particular viruses, have a longer survival time and can be carried long distances. Pathogens can also survive for a longer time in sediments where they can be activated by flooding. There are reported situations of regional or transboundary impacts. For instance, the Koros River in Hungary is reported to be contaminated by the discharges from the city of Orodea in Romania.
Box 5.3 Microbiological contamination
The data on microbiological contamination of the Danube are few and commonly a result of ad hoc studies. The data series that are available have to be interpreted with care, since a number of samples are normally needed in order to obtain a representative picture.
Figures for faecal coliform (an indicator of contamination with human faeces) as measured by the International Danube Expedition in 1988 are shown below. The European Union limit value is 20/ml and guide value is 1/ml for faecal coliform in bathing water.
Faecal coliforms in the Danube
Country Location Faecal coliform/ml
Slovakia Bratislava 40 Gabcikovo 1
Hungary Visegrad 300 Baja 13
Bulgaria Novo Selo 9 Vidin 0 Nikopol 3 Silistra 13
Romania Galatz 20
Ukraine Ismail 40 Vilkovo 30
In the European Union, viruses must be absent from waters intended for bathing. One survey found viruses in water samples at many sites along the Danube.
The limited data available indicate that both the upstream and downstream reaches of the Danube are contaminated with faecal pathogens. There is however no clear picture showing the impact of certain `hot spots', or indications that this problem is a major transboundary issue. The fact that the microbiological contamination is found also in the German and Austrian reaches of the river, where municipal waste water treatment facilities are well developed, indicates that non-point sources such as storm water run-off, unsewered urban and rural waste water, and animal manure run-off may also contribute to the problem.
The causes
23. Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is an important source of microbiological contamination. Untreated or partly treated waste water from cities such as Budapest, Sofia and Bucharest pose constant risks to downstream water users. Many of the smaller cities and villages on the tributaries have minimal waste water treatment. Larger cities normally have treatment plants that include mechanical and biological treatment stages. These remove 50-90% of the bacteria from waste water (with less effect on viruses). However, the performance of most treatment facilities in the downstream countries is far below design specification. This is partly due to inadequate capacity - leading to short retention time in the plant and the bypassing of untreated water - and partly due to lack of maintenance, the shortage of spare parts and equipment, and the lack of competence of the plant operators. The contamination of drinking water sources by sewage seems to have increased in recent years due to the deterioration in the performance of these facilities. Croatia has special problems because of war damage to treatment plants and sewerage systems.
24. Livestock enterprises which are still common in the CEE countries are also important point sources of microbiological pollution. Few of these enterprises have satisfactory waste water treatment and often discharge untreated liquid manure directly into nearby rivers or contaminate groundwater aquifers.
25. Non-point sources such as storm water run-off in urban areas, poor or non-existent sanitation facilities in rural areas, and the flushing of livestock manure by rainfall and snow melt are also causes of microbiological contamination. Storm water run-off seems to be an important contributor to the microbiological load from cities. Its contribution to the total load is difficult to calculate. Lack of sanitation and pollution by manure seem to be an important but local problem which occur primarily in areas where shallow groundwater wells and small water bodies are used for drinking water. The impacts are heavily dependent on local conditions such as the location of pollution sources in relation to the water abstraction, and the filtering capacity of the soil. The severity and regional pattern of this problem have not been documented. However, reports suggest that these pollution sources may be major causes of water-related health problems in the rural areas in the basin.
5.2.4 Heterotrophic growth and oxygen depletion affecting water uses
The problem
26. Organic materials discharged into a water body cause heterotrophic growth, which consumes available dissolved oxygen. The impact is dependent on the total load, the type of organic substances, the water temperature, and the dilution capacity and the initial oxygen concentration of the recipient. Serious oxygen deficiencies are most likely to occur in slow-flowing and stagnant waters. Downstream of major outlets, the oxygen concentration may drop below the level that can support aquatic life forms including fish populations. These waters will also not be suitable for drinking water supply and recreation. Heterotrophic growth can alter the natural biodiversity, including the inhibition of fish reproduction. Such situations are occurring in the Danube tributaries: for example, the Vit River in Bulgaria is unable to support fish downstream the city of Pleven, primarily due to discharges from a sugar factory. Discharges from the pulp and paper factory in Pietra Neamt have made one of the Siret tributaries unfit for most uses. The main stream of the Danube, however, has a very large dilution and oxygen mixing capacity that enables it to cope with heavy loads of organic materials.
The causes
27. Population, agriculture and industry contribute to the problem. Organic materials are found in untreated municipal sewage, and in agricultural sources such as large livestock operations, food processing industries, and pulp and paper mills. Reduction of discharges of organic material from municipal sources has been the principal concern in the region. Biological waste water treatment has been provided for most of the larger cities situated on the tributaries, but the performance of these units is now often reduced.
5.2.5 Competition for available water
The problem
28. Competition for available water is a serious problem in some regions of the Danube River basin, particularly on the left bank tributaries in Hungary and the tributaries in Romania and Bulgaria. In some of these rivers, drinking water abstraction is the dominant use. However, the high level of diversion of water from the rivers for other uses combined with their large seasonal variations in flow often results in water supply shortages. Special cases of water shortage arise when the water is channelled away from its original river bed. Local user conflicts and disruption of water ecosystems and wetlands often arise. Water shortage on several tributaries may have transboundary implications. These problems are most likely to occur in summer and mid-winter.
29. Substantial parts of the basin have low annual precipitation and consequently limited available water resources. A number of reservoirs have been constructed on the tributaries. Usually one reservoir or system of linked reservoirs provides water for water supply, energy production, irrigation, industrial supply, fish ponds, etc. The distribution of water flow by the reservoirs between the years/seasons and allocation of the available water volume among the users causes many problems in the operation reservoir. The main conflict is between water supply and other uses, and between irrigation and energy production in different seasons.
30. The challenges and problems of multipurpose water allocation have been growing in recent years because of the 10-year drought the region has experienced. The water flow in 1993 was the lowest in a century, the hydrological forecast for 1994 is even more pessimistic. Several smaller cities experienced water shortages in 1993, serious problems are foreseen in 1994 for the bigger cities in the lower Danube region. The city of Sofia is now supplied from the bottom of an almost empty reservoir. Its water quality does not meet current standards, but no alternative is available. Such situations also have important impacts on the downstream hydrological situation. There is not enough water available, nor is water allocated to maintain ecosystems and biodiversity.
31. Hydraulic structures for water supply, irrigation, navigation, energy production and flood control are numerous along the Danube and its tributaries. In Romania over 400 dams and reservoirs have been built on tributary rivers. The bigger reservoirs often change the flow pattern in the rivers and create water shortages and user conflicts downstream. Smaller dams, dikes, river training, etc. also have important impacts. They can have adverse impacts on recreation if the natural quality of the river is reduced. The potential for fish production in the river can be reduced by blocking migratory routes and reduce spawning possibilities. On the other hand, reservoirs might improve recreation by improving the access to the water.
32. While the mainstream Danube will generally always have enough water to meet the need for drinking water, it may not be sufficient to maintain navigation in some reaches or to accommodate diversions for power production and navigation.
The causes
33. The lack of integrated planning and water management is the main source of these problems. It affects the equitable operation of reservoirs, the allocation of storage, demand management and incentives for efficient water use, and the scheduling of releases. The reason is not that integrated or comprehensive planning methods are not known, but that decisions on water allocations, investments, and operations have been dominated by short-term sectorial concerns for production. Operation of many of the reservoirs is not integrated and often ignore critical downstream minimum flow requirements and long term costs of environmental degradation. These impacts are felt particularly by drinking water supply, fisheries, recreation, and environmentally sensitive areas.
34. Irrigation is the largest and most important competitor for water. Many existing irrigation systems are oversized and badly maintained and operated. This has led to excessive use of water and consequently increased conflicts with other sectors. During the transition from collective to private ownership of land and property many irrigation systems are not functioning and conflicts have been temporarily reduced.
35. Industrial enterprises have used water extravagantly in the CEE countries. This situation is the result of insignificant water tariffs which did not encourage water conservation, and the lack of affordable low waste technologies and water conservation. The situation is about to change in some of the countries with the introduction of more appropriate water supply and waste water discharge fees. Hungary and the Czech Republic recently introduced fees based on the principle of cost coverage which had an immediate effect on water demand.
5.3 The goal: `Reduce the negative impacts of activities in the Danube River basin on the riverine ecosystems and the Black Sea'
36. The problems and pollution sources that influence the quality and development of the riverine ecosystems in the Danube River basin are also the ones impacting the downstream ecosystems of the Danube delta and the Black Sea. While more research will be necessary to understand the environmental dynamics of the Danube delta and the Black Sea, it seems that nutrient and pollution loads coming from the Danube River basin will have to be reduced if the health of these ecosystems is to be restored. In order to avoid repetition, all the ecosystem related issues are discussed in this section. The discussion below focuses on three problems that affect the quality and development of these ecosystems. They are:
* High load of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and eutrophication
* Changes in river flow pattern and sediment transport regimes
* Contamination by hazardous substances, including oils.
5.3.1 High load of nutrients and eutrophication affecting ecosystems
The problem
37. Eutrophication is the main problem threatening the biodiversity and the economic potential of the riverine ecosystems, the Danube delta and the Black Sea. It is caused by the high load of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). The riverine ecosystems and the unique Danube delta have experienced rapid eutrophication in recent decades. The nutrient load from the Danube into the delta increased several-fold for nitrogen and phosphorus from 1960 to 1990. Shallow lakes and slow-flowing channels have experienced a shift in vegetation from submerged higher plants, water lilies, etc. to planktonic algae. The decomposition of organic material following extreme seasonal algae growth has caused oxygen depletion in the bottom layers and reduced the diversity of the flora and fauna. The composition of the fish population has shifted from commercially valuable species towards economically less valuable algae eating species. The total number of fish species has been reduced from about 100 in 1960 to 75 in 1990.
38. Coastal eutrophication caused by high nutrient loads reduces the productivity of wetlands and fisheries. It is estimated that the Danube contributes about half of the total river load of nutrients to the Black Sea. The shallow north-western shelf of the sea into which the Danube discharges is where the damage is most evident. Fisheries have been drastically reduced; biodiversity has suffered; and the quality of the beaches has declined because of excessive growth of algae and jellyfish.
39. Eutrophication of the wetlands and shallow water bodies along the main stream of the Danube River and some tributaries shows that these ecosystems are filtering the nutrients transported to the Black Sea. However, the increased load of nutrients to the river system and the radically reduced area of functioning wetlands limit the absorptive capacity of the wetlands.
The causes
40. The total load of nutrients to the Black Sea from the Danube can be estimated from water monitoring data from the Bucharest Convention network. The flow-corrected figures for 1991 are about 540 000 tonnes of inorganic nitrogen and about 45 000-50 000 tonnes of phosphorus. The actual load in a year is highly influenced by the total water volume discharged. More nutrients are transported in years with high precipitation than in dry years. There is considerable uncertainty about the emissions of nutrients to the Danube River system from different sources and different countries. Data from country reports give about 700 000 tonnes/year of total nitrogen and about 90 000 tonnes/year of total phosphorus. These data may represent only part of the total discharges, since several sources of surface and groundwater run-off have not been included in some of the country studies. The contribution from Bosnia-Herzegovina and the FR Yugoslavia is also not included. There is a major discrepancy between these figures and monitoring data in the Danube delta. Evidently, considerable amounts of nutrients are transformed (e.g. by denitrification) and/or retained in the reservoirs and floodplains/wetlands along the river. Much more detailed studies are needed to develop a reasonably good understanding of the retention and denitrification function of the river ecosystem and the relative contribution of the regions in the basin to the delta and Black Sea load.
41. The sources of nutrients are the same as those for the river ecosystems. The share of each main sector has been estimated at:
* Agriculture: about 50% of the total load
* Cities, rural towns and villages: about 25% of the total load
* Industry: about 20-30% of the total load, including atmospheric deposition and background load.
42. Diffuse sources of nutrients, primarily from agriculture and background loads, are dominant in the upstream countries of Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Further downstream, the point sources become more important, except in Moldova. This is probably a temporary situation, as the economic transition in the downstream countries has caused an abrupt drop in the use of fertiliser.
43. The retention capacity of the riverine wetlands for nitrogen and phosphorus is not known. However, the discrepancy between the estimates of total load to the Danube river systems and the calculated transport into the Black Sea (based on measurements in the delta) indicate that even today's significantly reduced river wetlands have an important function in reducing the total amount of nutrients transported. Restoring wetlands and managing them for the purpose of maximising nutrient removal may be one of the most promising measures to reduce eutrophication. A nutrient balance of the Danube delta for 1991 showed a nutrient retention of 65 000 tonnes of nitrogen and 3 300 tonnes of phosphorus.
5.3.2 Changes in river flow pattern and sediment transport regimes affecting ecosystems
The problem
44. The changed sediment transport regimes in the Danube, particularly the changes in the suspended solids, have created problems on the floodplains, in the Danube delta and on the Black Sea coast. The main cause is the construction of dams and barrages along the Danube River and its tributaries. The trapping of sediments in the upper reaches of the river has increased the erosion capacity of the Danube in its lower reaches, in the delta and on the Black Sea beaches. (Box 5.4).
45. The hydraulic structures that brought about changes in the river flow pattern and sediment transport regimes have also physically cut the riverine ecosystem into discrete segments. This damages habitat types and biodiversity, cuts the floodplainby separating the land from the river, and intensifies downstream river bed and bank erosion. Changes in flow can often reduce the water table and dry out previously wet, productive areas.
Box 5.4 Sediment regime of the Danube River
The natural sediment regime of the rivers depends on geological and soil conditions, topography, vegetation cover, climatic conditions and flood regime. During a rapid flood wave, the concentration of suspended sediment exceeds 10-20 times the concentration during low-water period. In addition, man-made factors such as river training works, land use, hydropower generation, flood protection structures (levies, dams) and their operation influence the sediment regime.
The processes involved are very complicated. Moreover, measuring the sediment regime is complicated. There are several hundred-kilometre-long stretches of the Danube River without any regular sediment-measuring station. The longest observation period of sediment transport is less than 35 years. Until recently there was no regular bed-load transport monitoring. The first comprehensive study on sediment quantity was prepared in 1988-92 by regional cooperation on the hydrological monograph on the Danube River, in the framework of UNESCO's International Hydrological Programme.
It is estimated that the Danube River discharges 25-80 million tonnes of sediment each year into Black Sea. At the river's mouth, suspended material makes up more than 98% of the total sediment load of the river. In the upper basin above Bratislava, the share of bed-load sediment transport is around 20%. Total sediment transport has declined in recent years. Due to the limited monitoring it is difficult to determine the relative influence of hydropower stations and flood regulation reservoirs against climatic changes or flood events after the mid-1970s.
The causes
46. The most important hydraulic structures influencing sediment transport are the Iron Gate dams. It is unrealistic to re-establish the sediment regime by opening existing dams, but proper environmental impact assessments must be made before new dams are constructed.
5.3.3 Contamination with hazardous substances affecting ecosystems
The problem
47. High levels of heavy metal and organic micro-pollutants - including pesticides - in the Danube delta and in the Black Sea at the mouth of the Danube have been reported by several local studies. Unfortunately, the data on water concentrations have been generally unreliable and need to be confirmed by modern laboratory analysis.
48. Even without reliable information, this problem must be dealt with. The intensive agricultural use of parts of the Danube delta may be a source of pesticide pollution. Sediment samples from the Danube, taken in 1991 and analysed according to state of the art methods, showed several pollution hot spots (defined as sediment concentrations exceeding threshold limits for classification as hazardous waste in the Netherlands) in the lower reaches of the Danube. One sampling point just upstream of the delta was above the legal limit for DDT. The impact of these hot spots on the Black Sea and the Danube delta will depend on the transport and retention of the polluting substances. Many hazardous substances attach easily to solid particles and will in most cases be deposited not far from the discharge point.
49. Oil pollution is a serious threat to the riverine ecosystems in general and to diversity and populations of bird species in particular. Undissolved fractions of the oil can float on the surface and damage or kill waterfowl, water living mammals, etc. There have been reports of serious incidents of oil kills of birds in the Danube delta. Oil contains a whole series of chemical components, some of which are toxic to the microfauna and microflora which are the basic components of aquatic ecosystems.
50. The data on concentrations of hazardous substances in living organisms in the Danube basin are scarce. Some of the local river wetlands may be endangered if they are downstream of major dischargers of hazardous substances. The pollutants will be taken up by biological material from the water or activated from the sediments. Once introduced in biological material, the substances may concentrate in the food chain. This could seriously damage carnivorous fish, bird and mammal species as well as biodiversity as a whole. High levels of heavy metals (in particular lead and cadmium) in fish tissues have been found at sampling points at Russe, Romania and at the mouth of the Tisza River. The same study reported that levels of pesticides were generally low in fish tissue except for one observation of significant lindane concentration.
The causes
51. The sources of hazardous and toxic substances have been discussed above. The downstream sources have the most important impacts on the delta and the Black Sea, since most of these pollutants are not easily transported in water. The pollution load from the upstream countries is to a certain extent captured in the reservoirs; as shown by the high levels of contaminants in the Iron Gate reservoirs, and in river sediments in slow flowing reaches of the river.
5.4 Institutional and policy issues
Public authorities
52. Two of the most important roles of public authorities are that of regulator and facilitator. These are particularly important roles because they enable public authorities to have a wide and large impact on the use and quality of water resources. Many would argue that the availability or quantity of funds is the main, if not the only, stumbling block to rapid improvement of water quality and availability. However, the greatest contribution may come from a sound institutional and policy framework; including modern environmental laws, water management practices, and administrative arrangements.
53. The policy framework varies considerably throughout the basin. Outlined below are five key areas where institutional and policy reform could have broad beneficial impacts on water management in the basin.
54. Realistic and achievable emission limits and water quality standards In central and eastern European areas of the basin, water quality standards on which discharge limits are based are too stringent to be measured in some cases, and too stringent to be met in many other cases. While arguably correct from a scientific point of view, these standards have often been ignored because of the technical and financial difficulties in achieving them. The development of a coherent system of water classification, of water quality objectives tailored to meet local needs (i.e. the water uses to be supported in a particular river reach) and of water quality standards would provide a better basis for water management and regulation.
55. Implementation and enforcement The choice of approach for implementing water quality objectives and standards is often represented as the choice between the `command-and-control' approach and the `market-based' approach. The former has been relied upon heavily in the past in western countries in the basin. A combined approach of water quality standards, discharge limits for individual facilities and financial instruments can be most effective in bringing about improvement in an industrial enterprise's environmental performance.
56. Incentives/disincentives Nearly all countries in the basin have some form of discharge fee and penalty system in place. Water use and pollution charges can be used as incentives for large or medium-sized industrial and municipal waste water treatment plants to improve their performance. In the past, these charges or fines have usually been too low to cause any change in behaviour by enterprises.
57. Monitoring and information systems Information is needed to develop integrated water management plans, to assess ambient water quality, to monitor waste water discharges, to implement and enforce laws and regulations, and to inform the public and decision-makers about the state of the environment and the performance of specific facilities. The preparation of this Action Plan has been notably weakened in key areas because of the lack of appropriate, consistent and reliable data. No adequate baseline exists against which to measure progress towards the Action Plan's objectives. The current monitoring systems in nearly all the basin countries are not able to support more effective integrated management systems.
58. Integrated regional or river basin planning Central planning and resource allocation was an important feature of water and environmental management in most of the CEE countries in the basin. This has been abandoned for a decentralised approach without the benefit of sufficient time to develop and strengthen institutions at the district and local level to carry out such planning. This is not just a problem of creating local capacity, however, as the nature of planning itself must change. The new approach must stress the integration of all sectors and objectives. It must be based on the application of benefit-cost or least-cost analysis, and rely on much greater participation on the part of the general public and other concerned groups.
Public and private enterprises
59. Some of the most important water quality and water resource management problems must be adressed by public and private enterprises. Agricultural development policies in the basin have generally not taken adequate account of environmental concerns. Rather, they have focused on production at the expense of the sustainable use of land, water and biological resources. Recent policies and subsidies have encouraged intensification of crop production, excessive and inappropriate use of fertilisers and other agrochemicals, and intensification of livestock production to levels where manures cannot be managed. These practices have caused serious degradation of water quality and environmental harm. If pollution sources in the agriculture sector have to be addressed over the long term, countries will have to adopt policies that discourage the intensive use of chemicals. The restructuring of the agriculture sector offers a unique opportunity for change that should be supported by research, rural extension services, and the demonstration of new technologies and practices that are environmentally sound and sustainable.
60. Environmental audits and waste minimisation Environmental audits can provide a basis for the preparation of step-by-step, low-cost programmes for environmental improvement in industrial facilities. Waste minimisation programmes usually form part of a wider programme of environmental improvement that includes training, changes in technology to avoid the generation of waste, and win-win solutions to re-use wastes.
The general public and NGOs
61. Public awareness of and participation in governmental decisions about resource management and land use are vital to sustaining a political commitment to sound water policies. A strong base of support for the Action Plan will depend on developing mechanisms for effective participation of the general public and concerned groups in the policies to be developed and the actions to be carried out under the Action Plan.
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ANNEX I
GLOSSARY
This glossary explains key terms as they have been used in this document.
AdsorptionThe surface retention of solid, liquid or gas
molecules, atoms or ions by a solid
Agrochemicals All chemicals used in agriculture (pesticides,
herbicides, fertilisers, etc.)
AlluvialMade of soil and sands deposited by rivers or floods.
Anaerobic Breakdown of organic matter in the absence of free or
dissolved oxygen, often facilitated by specific
bacterial strains
AnoxicLacking oxygen
AquifersPermeable geological formation of water-bearing rock,
sand, soil or gravel which can supply water in usable
quantities, for example to wells or springs
Atmospheric depositionThe process whereby solids or dissolved inorganic or
organic substances are deposited via atmospheric
conditions, e.g. rain, at ground level
Audit, environmentalAn industrial management tool: a systematic,
documented, periodic and objective evaluation of the
performance of the organisation, management system and
processes of a company for protection of the
environment
Autonomous utilitiesUtilities, e.g. for providing water services, which
have defined legal responsibilities and are
self-financing
Bank-filtered water Aquifers in the alluvial zones of gravel and sand
deposits along rivers
Basel ConventionConvention on the control of transboundary movements
of hazardous wastes and their disposal (1989).
Bed-loadMaterial (silt, sand, gravel) moving on or immediately
above the stream bed
Best AvailableLatest stage of development (state of the art) of
Techniques (BAT)processes emphasising the use of non-waste technology,
of facilities or of methods of operation which
indicate the practical suitability of a particular
measure for limiting discharges, emissions and waste.
It is applied to industrial and other point sources of
pollution.
Best EnvironmentalApplication of the most appropriate combination of
Practice (BEP)sectoral environmental control strategies and
measures. It is applied to non-point sources of
pollution such as agriculture.
Biochemical OxygenA measure of the quantity of oxygen used in the
Demand (BOD)biochemical oxidation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous
compounds in a specified time, at a specified
temperature and under specified conditions. The
standard measurement is made for five days at 20deg.C
and is termed BOD5. BOD is an indicator of the
presence of organic material in the water.
BiodiversityThe sum total of different species of flora and fauna
in a given region, area or habitat.
Biota Living organisms, including animals, plants and
bacterial in a given ecosystem.
Catchment The area of the drainage basin of a river
Chemical Oxygen DemandA measure of the quantity of oxygen used in the
chemical oxidation of compounds in a specified time,
at a specified temperature and under specified
conditions
Command and control Regulatory instruments in environmental policy. These
are characterised by their imperative nature (e.g.
emission standards), unlike economic instruments that
are voluntary and offer incentives.
Commercial bank Privately owned banks operating cheque or current
accounts, receiving deposits, taking in and paying out
notes and coin, and making loans
Commercial termssee Market terms
Concessional funds/ Monies lent out at less than the market rate of
assistanceinterest
Conference of the A meeting of the contracting parties (governments) to
Parties an international convention
Convention, A form of treaty or international agreement concluded
international between Contracting States in written form,
establishing rules expressly recognised by the
Contracting States and governed by international law
Cost accounting Accounting is the system of organising, maintaining
and auditing the financial records of a company (or an
individual). Cost-accounting refers to the initial
data and procedures that are used to build up the
accounts. In principle, these will refer to the actual
prices paid (historic cost accounting). In order to
take into account the effect of inflation (which
requires that renewal of materials or machines that
are written off need to be replaced with more
expensive materials/machines) other methods exist
(inflation accounting) that allow to reflect in the
records the depreciation in real terms of the assets.
Credit risk The probability that a borrower will not repay a
lender according to the agreed upon terms
Danube EnvironmentalA programme of cooperation established by Danubian
Programme countries, bilateral and multilateral donors,
international organisations and NGOs
DebtA sum of money or other property owed by one person or
organisation to another
Debt for nature/A debt reduction technique in which there is the
environment swapexchange by a debtor country of parts of its external
debts for environmental or nature protection
improvements
Debt serviceA payment of interest on a debt that is an amount in
addition to the debt amount itself
DecentralisationA process in the organisational development of a
entity with specific environmental responsibility
whereby the responsibility is delegated and
performance and penalties defined
Declaration A non-binding statement of policy by a government or
group of governments (e.g. Odessa Declaration)
Denitrification The process whereby nitrate is successively reduced to
nitrogen, facilitated by bacteria in the presence of a
carbon source and other nutrients
Determinand Description given to a substance subject to analysis
in a laboratory for chemical biological or physical
analysis or measurement for which a quantitative
presence in the environment can be defined
Discharge The flow rate of a fluid at a given instant expressed
as volume per unit of time (see stream discharge)
DonorsGovernments and organisations which contribute
financially to the Danube Programme
Ecological agricultureSee Organic farming
Ecology The study of the relationships of organisms to their
environment
Economic instrumentsInstruments of environmental policies in which a
change in technology, behaviour or products is
encouraged through financial incentives (either
subsidies, taxes, price differentiation or market
creation)
Economically viable An economic activity operating in a market of other
buyers and sellers that generates revenues sufficient
to cover all the fixed and variable costs of
production and a profit large enough to induce the
firm to remain in the market
Ecosystem A natural unit consisting of living and non-living
parts interacting with each other, formed by the
organisms of a natural community and their environment
ECU European Currency Unit - the unit of account of the
European Union based on a weighted average of the
currencies of the member countries of the European
Union. The rate of 1 ECU = 1.20 USD was used for
preparation of this report.
EmissionRelease of substances from a source
Emission limitA numerical limit set on the emissions of a substance
from a source
Entero-virusesViruses indicative of domestic sewage and a high risk
of disease if not controlled or eradicated
Environmental dynamicsNatural or man-made processes or forces which change
the state of the environment
Environmental quality The requirements which must be fulfilled by a given
standardenvironment or part thereof (e.g. air, surface water,
groundwater)
EpidemiologyThe science of epidemics or the spread of disease or
organisms which cause disease
EquityThe residual value of a company's assets after all
outside liabilities, other than to shareholders, have
been allowed for. Equity is the amount left for the
borrower if the asset is sold and the lender repaid.
Erosion A natural physical process where either wind or rain
and surface water run-off loosen and remove soil
particles from land surfaces which are often deposited
in rivers and lakes
EutrophicationThe process of over-fertilisation of a body of water
by nutrients producing more organic matter than the
self-purification processes can overcome
Export creditsPreferential treatment, often in the form of
short-term loan financing at preferential rates to the
purchaser, for firms that sell their products abroad,
compared to firms that sell in the home market
Faecal coliformsBacteria common to the digestive tract of human beings
and animals. Indicative of domestic sewage and a high
risk of disease if not controlled or eradicated Faecal streptococci Bacteria indicative of human and animal excreta and a
high risk of disease if not controlled or eradicated
FeesA charge for professional services
FertiliserAny substance containing calcium, nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium and microcompounds used on land
to enhance the growth of vegetation; it may include
livestock manure, the residues from fish farms and
sewage sludge. A component necessary for plant growth.
Financial intermediaryInstitutions which hold money balances of, or which
borrow from individuals and other institutions, in
order to make loans or other investments. They serve
the purpose of channelling funds from lenders to
borrowers.
Fiscal measures Legal requirements involving finance, e.g. taxes
Fines See economic instruments
FunctionSee Water use
GDP Gross Domestic Product - a measure of the total flow
of goods and services produced by the residents within
the country over a specified period, normally a year
GNP Gross National Product - GDP plus the income accruing
to domestic residents from investment abroad less
income earned in the domestic market accruing to
foreigners abroad
Goals Used as a synonym for objectives or aims; also a set
of levels of water pollutants or water quality
parameters to be attained in water quality management
programmes; sometimes referred to as objectives, or
guide values
Grant funds Monies given to an individual or institution with no
expectation or requirement of repayment at any time in
the future
Groundwater All subsurface water
GuaranteesA commitment by a third party, possibly another
financial institution but often a national government,
to repay a loan in the event that the borrower is
unable to do so
GypsumCalcium-sulphate-hydrate
Habitat The natural environment of an animal or plant
Harmonisation The process by which governments bring their
legislation and policies into compatibility with each
other
Hazardous substancesSubstances which have adverse impacts on living
organisms, e.g. toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic,
teratogenic, harmful for the environment
Heterotrophic growthIn a water pollution context, this will mean growth of
organisms - bacteria and fungus - based on the
consumption of organic material and oxygen. Contrary
to autotrophic (plant) growth which produces oxygen
and organic matter
`Hot spot'A local land area, stretch of surface water or
specific aquifer which is subject to excessive
pollution and which requires specific action to
prevent or reduce the degradation caused
HydrocarbonsPetroleum products
Hypoxia Condition where oxygen levels are reduced or lower
than desirable to support life
Immission The concentration of pollutants in a surface water
(see environmental quality standards)
Income-tax incentives Fiscal measures related to the taxation of private
incomes
Integrated waterA participatory planning, decision making and
managementimplementation process that takes into account the
specific water quality and quantity requirements of
all users and uses
Inter-calibration A means by which the accuracy and reliability of
results produced by two or more measuring devices can
be assessed
Joint venturesEconomic activities undertaken by partners with joint
involvement in the financial, managerial and
production process aspects of the firm(s); partners
may be from different sectors e.g. private firms,
government ministries and financial institutions
Karstic water Groundwater found in the heavily fissured exposed
limestone rock formation very common in the Danube
river basin
LandfillDisposal of solid waste materials at land based sites
LeachateLiquid which has percolated through a substrate (e.g.
soil, ore, waste dump, etc.)
LoadThe quantity of a substance or material carried or
transported by a river (and its associated
hydrological processes)
Market-basedSee Economic instruments
instruments
Market termsThe interest rate, maturity structure and other
relevant characteristics of a loan that result from
the interaction between potential lenders and
potential borrowers in a market. The nature of
competition and pricing is determined by the structure
of the market, most importantly the number and size of
the buyers and sellers involved in the market
Microbiological Pollution with micro-organisms - such as viruses,
contamination bacteria, protozoa, etc. - that might cause diseases
in humans or animals
Micro-pollutantsOrganic or inorganic substances such as PCB, dioxin,
cadmium, mercury, etc. that will create negative
health impacts or adverse ecological changes even when
present in low concentrations
Mineral oil One of the products of fossil hydrocarbons
Nitrate NO3-
Non-budgetary Financial encouragements which do not affect the budget
incentives
NutrientA substance, element or compound necessary for the
growth and development of plants and animals
Organic farming Agriculture production system where each farm is
considered as a whole where all components - soil
minerals, organic matter, micro-organisms, insects,
plants, animals and humans - interact without the use
of synthetic fertilisers.
Pathogens Disease-causing organisms
Penalty A punishment (e.g. a sum of money) for the violation
of a law, rule or contract
Pesticide Substance that kills organisms injurious to man or to
the plants and animals upon which he depends for food,
fibre and shelter
Phytoplankton Collectively, all the microscopic plants, such as
certain algae, living unattached in aquatic habitats
Phytoplankton bloom An excessive growth of phytoplankton
PlanktonMinute plants (phytoplankton) and animals
(zooplankton) which either have relatively small
powers of locomotion or drift in the water subject to
the action of waves and currents. The chief
constituents of phytoplankton are unicellular algae.
The zooplankton consists of various organisms
including protozoa, small crustaceans and various
invertebrate larvae
Point source, A localised discharge of pollutants (e.g. from an
non-point sourceindustrial plant); diffuse pollution in a catchment
area (e.g. agricultural run-off)
Polluter Pays Principle that the polluter should carry the costs of
Principle the measures required to diminish or clean up
pollution
Pollution The discharge, directly or indirectly, of compounds
from sources into the environment in such quantity as
to pose risks to human health, living resources or to
aquatic ecosystems, damage to amenities, or
interference with other legitimate uses of water.
Population equivalent No uniform definition exists. Used as a measure of
water pollution load based on figures of an average
`pollution production' of one person in one day. Often
used figures are: (BOD5) 60 g per day; total nitrogen
12 g per day and total phosphorous 2.5 g per day.
Primary treatment A one-step treatment process of urban waste water by a
physical or chemical process involving settlement of
suspended solids
Programme The Unit with a specific coordinating role established
Coordination Unit under the Environmental Programme for the Danube River
(PCU) Basin
Reach A length of a river the exact distance of which may or
may not be specified
Recurrent costs These are costs that vary directly and predictably
with the rate of output, e.g. labour costs, raw
materials costs, energy costs (also known as variable
costs or operating costs)
RegionalIn this document, either a group of countries or a
subnational geographic area depending on the context
in which the phrase is used in the text
RehabilitationImprovement of a visual nature to a natural resource
or, putting back infrastructure into good condition or
working order
Restoration Return of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its
condition prior to disturbance
Restructuring Any change in the organisation and method of financing
an entity with responsibility for environmental
management or with the potential to emit pollution
into the environment
RevenuesGross income accruing to a firm through the sale of
its output
Secondary treatment Treatment of waste water by a process generally
involving biological treatment with a secondary
settlement or other process
Secretariat,A formal operating Unit established under the Danube
International River Protection Convention (see Annex IV, Art. 7 of
the DRPC)
SedimentSolid fragmental material originating from weathering
of rocks or by other processes, deposited by air water
or ice, or that accumulated by other processes such as
chemical precipitation from solution or secretion by
organisms.
Sediment load The amount of sediment passing a cross section of a
river or stream, in a specified period of time (see
also Bedload)
Silt-loess layers Deposits of fine sediments which collect at the
interface between the river bank/bed and the water
column. These layers perform an important role in
maintaining water quality in shallow groundwater close
to the river.
Species Group of related individuals with a common hereditary
morphology, chromosomic number and structure,
physiological characteristics and way of life,
separated from neighbouring groups by a barrier, which
is generally sexual in nature, and occupying a
definable geographic area
Stakeholder A person who holds a sum of money deposited by the
buyer in a transfer of ownership of land or a
building; the deposit will be paid to the seller only
if the buyer agrees, and vice versa. Or, a person,
organisation or subgroup of an organisation that have
a common interest in a project or activity
SubcatchmentPart of a catchment
Subsidies Grants to suppliers of goods and services or
individuals; a subsidy has the object of keeping
prices below the cost of production.
Sunk capitalThe amount of an organisation's funds that has been
spent and is therefore no longer available to the
organisation, frequently because it has been spent on
either unrealisable or valueless assets
Sustainable The use of resources in such a way that the possible
Development needs of future generations are not seriously affected
Tariffs A tax imposed on a good imported in a country. It may
be specific (x $ per good) or ad valorem, which means
a certain % of the value of the imported goods.
Tariff policy Policies that affect the tariffs for certain goods or
the overall pattern of tariff rates
Task Force (DanubeThe supervisory body which oversees and provides
Programme)overall direction to the Environmental Programme for
the Danube River Basin
Tax A tax is a sum of money that a local or national
authority imposes on incomes (income tax), properties
(property tax), sales (sales tax), profits (profit
tax) or the creation of waste and/or pollution waste
(waste/pollution tax). Taxes can be specified as a
rate (e.g. income, profit or sales taxes are generally
x % of taxable income, profit or sales) or as a fixed
amount for a certain unit (e.g. pollution taxes can be
expressed as x $ per ton of waste or pollutants
emitted in the air, water).
Tax incentive A tax incentive will lower the taxes to encourage
certain behaviour, products, production processes,
location, _ It will either lower the tax rate or fixed
amount or it will lower the taxable income or profit.
Toxic substance Substances which cause harm to living organisms
Tributary A river which ultimately flows into the Danube River
Twinning agreementAn agreement of international cooperation and exchange
between similar organisations or institutions (e.g.
towns, cities, national parks)
Water charges See Fees
Water quality criteriaA scientific requirement on which a decision or
judgement may be based concerning the suitability of
water quality to support a designated use
Water quality standardSee Environmental quality standard
Water usesWater used for a number of purposes: Water supply for
drinking water, irrigation, and industry (including
food production), as a recipient of waste water from
the public sector, industry and agriculture, for
transport, for energy production, as flood protection,
for recreation, riverine and other ecosystems, and
biodiversity; often referred to as `functions'
Water users Public and municipal sector, agriculture and
fisheries, industry, transport and energy
ANNEX II
DANUbe river basin environmental programme Members of the task force and Programme Coordination Unit
The Task Force
The Task Force was created to oversee and to provide direction to the Programme, and to review progress achieved. It is comprised of senior representatives of riparian countries, international organisations and governments, and selected non-governmental organisations. The Task Force coordinates the administrative, financial, scientific and technical advisory support for the development and implementation of Programme activities.
Austria
Mr Wolfgang Hein
Dept. for the Coordination of Energy and Environmental Affairs
Federal Chancellery
Hohenstaufengasse 3
A - 1010 Vienna
Austria
Barbara Gauntlett Foundation
Ms Jane M. Knecht
International Square
1825 Eye Street, NW, Suite 400
Washington, DC
20006 USA
Bulgaria
Mr Branimir Natov
Mr Ilya Natchkov
Ministry of Environment
67 W. Gladstone Str.
BG - 1000 Sofia
Bulgaria
Mr Richard Moxon
PHARE
Directorate General I
External Economic Relations
200, rue de la Loi
B-1049 Brussels
Belgium
Croatia
Mrs Visnja Jelic-Mück
State Directorate for Environment
Avenija grada Vukovara 78
41000 Zagreb
Croatia
Czech Republic
Mr Jaroslav Kinkor
Dept. of Water Protection, Ministry of Environment
Vrsovická 65
CZ-100 10 Praha 10
Czech Republic
Danube Environmental Forum
Mrs Jana Hajduchova
Union for the Morava River
Prostrední, 41
CZ-686 01 Uherskí Hradiste
Czech Republic
Mr Catalin Gheorge Radu
Group for Underwater and Speleological Exploration
Str. Frumoasa 31 B
Sector I
ROM-78114 Bucharest
Romania
Mr Boris Traunsek
Slovenian Ecological Movement (SEG)
Centre for Ecological Activities
Miklosiceva 38/III
61000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
Mr Rod Hewett
Transport and Environmental Infrastructure
One Exchange Square
London EC2A 2EH
United Kingdom
European Investment Bank
Mr Patrice Géraud
Direction for Economic Research
100, Bld. Konrad Adenauer
L-2950 Luxembourg
European Commission
Mr Tue Rohrsted
Directorate General XI
Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection
European Commission
200 rue de la Loi
B-1049 Brussels
Belgium
Germany
Mr Michael von Berg
Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Protection and Nuclear Safety
Ahrstrasse 20
D-53175 Bonn
Germany
Mr Dieter Pfündl
Ministry of State of Bavaria for Regional Development and Environmental Affairs
Franz-Josef-Strauss-Ring 4
D-80539 Munich
Germany
Hungary
Mr Istvan Tókes
Ministry for Environment and Regional Policy
Fö utca 44-50, P.O. Box 351
H-1394 Budapest
Hungary
Moldova
Mr Ion Ilie Dediu
National Institute of Ecology of the Republic of Moldova
Dacia Ave, 58
277060 Chisinau, Moldova
Netherlands
Mr Ab Van Luin
Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA)
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
Maerlant 16, P.O. Box 17
NL - 8200 AA Lelystad
The Netherlands
Regional Environmental Centre for
Central and Eastern Europe
Mr Dalibor Kysela
Miklos tér. 1
H-1035 Budapest
Hungary
Romania
Mr Ioan Jelev
Ministry of Waters, Forests and Environmental Protection
12 Blvd. Libertatii
ROM-Sect 5 Bucharest
Romania
Slovakia
Mr Ivan Závadsky
Mr Ivan Matuska
Ministry of Environment
Hlboka 2
812 35 Bratislava
Slovakia
Slovenia
Mr Mitja Brilly
FAGG - Hydraulics Dept.
University of Ljubljana
Hajdrihova 28
61000 Ljubljana
Slovenia
Ukraine
Mr Yuriy Ruban
Mrs Natalia Simagina
Ministry for Environmental Protection of Ukraine
5 Khreshchatyk Street
252001 Kiev
Ukraine
UNDP
Mrs Annie Roncerel
Division for Europe and the CIS
304 East 45th Street, 5th floor
New York
10017 USA
Mr Roger Aertgeerts
Office for Project Services
220 East 42nd Street, 15th floor
New York
10017 USA
UN Economic Commission for Europe
Mr G. de Bellis
Environment and Human Settlements Division
Palais des Nations, Room 319
CH-1211 Geneva 10
Switzerland
UNEP
Dr Habib El-Habr
Water and Lithosphere Unit
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi
Kenya
United States of America
Mr Ronald Greenberg
United States Agency for International Development
Bureau for Europe, Office of Development Resources
Environment and Natural Resources Division (Room 4440 NS)
320 21st Street, N.W.
Washington, DC
20523-0053 USA
World Bank
Mr Piotr Wilczynski
Mr Tony Garvey
Environmental Division
Europe & Central Asia, Middle East & North Africa Regions
1818 H. Street, NW
Washington, DC
20433 USA
World Conservation Union (IUCN)
Ms Liz Hopkins
World Conservation Union
Rue Mauverney 28
CH-1196 Gland
Switzerland
World Wide Fund for Nature
Mr Klaus-Henning Groth
WWF International
Josefstrasse 1
D-76437 Rastatt
Germany
PROGRAMME COORDINATION UNIT
A Programme Coordination Unit (PCU) has been set up to support the activities of the Task Force. Its main responsibilities are to:
* Plan and coordinate Task Force meetings
* Facilitate G-24 involvement
* Monitor all Programme activities
* Facilitate information sharing
* Report on Programme activities.
The specialist staff are: Mr David Rodda
Mr Bo Wingard
Mr Ian Lennox
Mr Richard Holland
Address: Danube Programme Coordination Unit
Room E0874
Vienna International Centre - PO Box 500
A-1400 Vienna
Austria
OBSERVERS
Black Sea Programme Dr Laurence D. Mee
UNDP Programme Coordinating Unit
GEF Programme Environmental Management and Protection of the Black Sea
Yesilkoy-Caddesi No. 9
Florya, Istanbul
Turkey
Programme Funding
Programme funding has been provided by the European Commission PHARE Regional programme, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) implemented by the UNDP, The World Bank and UNEP, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Austria, the Netherlands, the USA, and The Barbara Gauntlett Foundation. Staff, accommodation, equipment and operating costs for the Programme Coordination Unit have been met by the European Commission (General budget), GEF and The World Bank. Danube countries have supported the Programme with the provision of national expertise, country information and, wherever possible, facilities for meetings and workshops. Organisations such as WWF, NGOs and others not represented on the Task Force e.g. Equipe Cousteau, have made the results of relevant studies available.
Annex III
PROGRAMME REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS
1. Austria Pre-investment Study
Morava/Dye River Czech and Slovak Republic (participation by Austria alongside study by The World Bank)
2. Barbara Gauntlett Foundation
Prut: Ukraine, Romania and Moldova (technical assistance provided by The World Bank)
3. European Commission PHARE Studies
Monitoring
Monitoring Laboratory and Information Management for the Danube River Basin. Volume I. Priority Needs to Strengthen the Danube Basin Monitoring Network. February 1994
Monitoring Laboratory and Information Management for the Danube River Basin. Volume II. Priority Actions to Improve Harmonisation of Sampling and Laboratory Management in the Danube Basin. February 1994
Monitoring Laboratory Analysis, and Information Management. Volume III. Priority Needs to Establish an Information Management System for the Danube Basin. February 1994
Monitoring, Laboratory Analysis and Information Management for the Danube River Basin. Volume IV. Summary. February 1994
Monitoring, Laboratory Analysis, and Information Management. Volume V. Implementation Plan. February 1994
Monitoring, Laboratory Analysis and Information Management for the Danube River Basin. Report on Current Capabilities in the Republic of Moldova. March 1994
Integrated Regional Environment Study. Inception Report. August 1993
Phase I Report. January 1994, Final Report. July 1994
Workshop Economics Valuation of Environmental Functions, Final Report. July 1994
Accident Emergency Warning System, Final Report on Set-up of System. September 1994
Inventory of Biological Resources, Draft Final Report on Danube River Basin Study. April 1994
4. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - Taiwan Cooperation Fund
Energy in the Danubian Countries, Current Situation, Outlook, and Energy Policy Proposals (prepared with International Consulting on Energy). September 1992. by Equipe Cousteau
Report on a Joint Assessment of Pollution in the Danube River, Report on Pollution Data (prepared with Marine Environmental Laboratory of the International Atomic Energy Agency and Water Resources Research Centre/VITUKI). November 1992. by Equipe Cousteau
The Danube _ For Whom and For What? Final Report. 1993. by Equipe Cousteau
5. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and EC PHARE funded studies on:
Environmental Standards and Legislation in Western and Eastern Europe Towards Harmonisation, Final Report Task IV: Water Sector Case Study Parts I and II. July 1993
Environmental Standards Database, Inception Report. December 1993
6. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - EC PHARE Cooperation Fund pre-investment studies on the following rivers:
Vah: Slovak Republic
Upper Tisza/Bodrog: Ukraine, Slovak Republic and Hungary
Iskar: Bulgaria
Siret: Ukraine and Romania
Drava: Hungary, Slovenia and Austria (part funded by Austria)
Other Studies:
The Danube A Heritage Under Pressure, Draft Summary Report of a Danube Regional Environmental Study. April 1993.
7. GEF/The World Bank pre-investment studies on the following rivers:
Morava/Dye: Czech Republic and Slovakia (part funded by Austria)
Nitra: Slovak Republic
Zagyva: Hungary
Cris/Koros: Romania and Hungary
Olt: Romania
Vit/Osam: Bulgaria
8. GEF/UNDP Studies
Analysis & Synthesis of National Reviews. Draft Report (prepared with the participation of Austria). 1994
World Health Organisation Study on Environmental Health Aspects in the Catchment Area of the River Danube held in Bratislava, 16-19 December 1993. Draft Report. January 1994
Report on a Workshop on Public Participation and Information Strategies in Danube Basin Countries. Held at Sinaia, Romania, 17-20 February 1994. February 1994.
Development of a Prototype Information System to support the Danube Programme. Final Report. March 1994.
Evaluation of the International Water Quality Monitoring Programme. Report for Technical Experts meeting 23-25 September 1991.
9. National Reviews for:
Austria
Bulgaria
Croatia (preliminary draft report)
Czech Republic
Germany
Hungary
Moldova
Romania
Slovakia
Slovenia
Ukraine
10. Programme Coordination Unit Reports
Quarterly Reports 1-7
Annual Report, September 1993
Monitoring, Laboratory and Information Sub-Group Meeting Reports. December 1992 to July 1994.
Accident, Emergency Warning Alarm System Sub-Group Meeting Reports. November 1992 to April 1994.
Report on Pre-investment Studies Review Workshop, Vienna, March 1993.
Report on Pre-investment Studies Review Workshop, Bucharest, June 1993.
11. The Netherlands
Pre-investment Study, Hron: Slovak Republic
Report on the Water Quality Profile of the Danube River along the Bulgarian-Romanian stretch. Surveyed in June 1991. April 1992.
Report on the Bulgarian-Dutch Research Expeditions on Danube and the Black Sea. Surveyed in May 1990.
12. USAID Studies
Point-Source Pollution in the Danube Basin.
Report on Data Management, Institutional Studies, and Priority Projects. Volume I. July 1992.
Point-Source Pollution in the Danube Basin Institutional Studies; Bulgaria, the CSFR, Hungary, and Romania Volume II. July 1992.
Point Source Pollution in the Danube Basin.
Country Technical Reports Bulgaria, the CSFR, Hungary, and Romania Volume III. July 1992.
Water Quality Pre-investment Studies in Four Danube River Tributary Basins. 1993 Summary Report.
Water Quality Pre-investment Studies in the Hornad Basin in Slovakia. August 1993.
Water Quality Pre-investment Studies in the Sajo-Hernad Basin in Hungary. August 1993.
Water Quality Pre-investment Studies in the Yantra Basin in Bulgaria. August 1993.
Water Quality Pre-investment Studies in the Arges Basin in Romania. August 1993.
User Manual Danube Emissions Management Decision Support System (DEMDESS). July and September 1992.
Annex IV
ACCIDENT EMERGENCY WARNING SYSTEM
1. Introduction
1. In past years a significant number of accidental water pollution events were reported on the Danube River and its tributaries, many of which had an international dimension. On several occasions such incidents required emergency closure of drinking water intakes and provision of alternative supplies, and harmed downstream ecosystems.
2. The need for accident emergency warning is recognized in Article 16 of the Convention on Cooperation for Protection and Sustainable Use of the Danube River (Danube River Protection Convention) which was signed in Sofia on 29 June 1994, and in numerous bilateral and international agreements concerning the Danube and its tributaries, such as the Bucharest Declaration (1985), and the Convention on Cooperation for Protection and Sustainable Use of the River Danube Basin.
3. The need for an Accident Emergency Warning System (AEWS) has also been clearly demonstrated by the Rhine Alarm System, in operation for many years but strengthened following the `Sandoz' accident in 1987, as well as by the recently developed Elbe Alarm System.
4. The initial design and implementation of the Danube AEWS focuses on the organisation and operation of international and national alerting procedures which are activated once notice of an accident has been received. Its general objective is to increase public safety by protecting drinking water sources and other sensitive water uses.
5. The preparation of the set-up of the Danube AEWS [1 has been supported financially by the PHARE programme of the European Commission. The approach has been developed by the AEWS Sub-Group supported by Delft Hydraulics in collaboration with the Dutch Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Treatment (RIZA) under a contract placed on the advice of the Danube Programme Coordination Unit.
6. The main agreed requirements in setting up the AEWS are that:
* The system should communicate information about sudden changes in the water characteristics (for example caused by accidental pollution or unpredictable changes in water level) particularly where significant adverse transboundary impact is threatened
* All riparian countries and, in principle, all tributaries within the river catchment will be incorporated.
2. Principal International Alert Centre
7. The establishment of a Principal International Alert Centre (PIAC) in each of the Danube riparian states is a fundamental element of the proposed AEWS as it will be the sole responsible operational unit, in charge of coordinating all communications. PIAC operations are triggered by the reception of a message from national, regional or district authorities or from a PIAC in one of the other riparian countries about a potentially serious, sudden pollution event or accident.
8. Placed at the top of an organisational structure formed by the various national, regional and district level, the PIACs should each be at the same level of responsibility and perform the main tasks:
* Communicate a reported sudden pollution of the Danube River basin waters
* Involve experts to assess the effects or impact of the reported accidental pollution
* Make decision on action to be taken.
9. To undertake these tasks, three separate functional units should be established:
* a communication unit (CU)
* an expert unit (EU)
* a decision-making unit (DU).
In most countries, these three units will be part of existing national or regional organisations.
3. Integrated Operation
10. A crucial function of the PIAC is to coordinate emergency warning at the international level. To enable this coordination, an integrated approach has been developed for the Danube AEWS which includes the Danube River and all transboundary tributaries. Information flows based on existing regulations or alarm plans, including the transboundary information flow, will remain effective. Additional reports will be made to the country's own PIAC where major incidents or incidents with an unknown impact are managed.
4. Required technology
11. To be able to receive and handle without delay messages on a 24-hour basis, the PIAC must have a reliable (inter)national communication system, an operations manual, a well trained staff of experts and a dedicated information system with standard forms of international warning.
12. The basic technology proposed for the AEWS comprises a satellite-based communication network for international communication, a database system for retrieving information on hazardous substances, and a model which can simulate the propagation of pollutants in the river reach concerned (the Danube Basin Alarm Model (DBAM)).
5. Implementation
13. In order to implement the Danube AEWS, the following step-wise development is proposed:
* Phase I: Implementation of the AEWS for the whole Danube basin based on the PIAC functions and set-up as described above by procuring and applying minimum required technology. This should take place over a 12-15 month period.
* Phase II: Development of the Danube Basin Alarm Model to describe and forecast propagation of a possible pollutant plume in the Danube or in one of its main tributaries. This phase should overlap phase I and provide an operational model within a 12-18 months period.
* Phase III: Extension of AEWS to improve the functionality of the management tool and/or field data as well as the process of initial detection and reporting of accidental pollution including the possible establishment of automatic water quality warning stations. This phase should start when phase I is completed.
6. Operational and initial costs
14. The implementation of the AEWS will be supported financially by the PHARE Programme of the European Commission. Once the Danube AEWS has been implemented, there will be recurring costs in each riparian country to maintain the system. Even when the Danube AEWS is not in an alarm state, there will be a need for 24-hour on-call attendance at the communication unit. Other operational costs will be for satellite communications (1 500 ECU/year/unit) and maintenance costs for the equipment (850 ECU/year/unit).
